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This outlines how and why we collect, store and use your personal data when you use our website. Like most websites, we use cookies to improve our service and make your user experience better. See our updated Privacy Policy to find out more about cookies and how we use your data. Thank you. Book Sample. Related Subjects Nautical Archaeology. This book is a guide to the study of the most marvelous structures ever built by humankind�wooden ships and boats.
It is intended for nautical archaeologists and for anyone charged with documenting and interpreting the remains of wrecked or abandoned vessels. It will also be of value to historians, authors, model builders, and others interested in the design and construction of wooden watercraft of the past.
The text is divided into three parts. The first introduces the discipline and presents enough basic information to permit the untrained reader to understand the analysis of ship and boat construction that follows.
Part II is broken into three chapters that investigate ancient, medieval, and post-medieval shipwrecks and supporting documentation. Not all of the world's ship and boat excavations can be included in this single volume; nautical archaeology has progressed too far for that. Instead, these three chapters have been assembled to represent a cross section of shipbuilding technology as seen through the interpretation of a select group of finds. More Filters. Research Feed. The 4th-century B.
View 1 excerpt, cites background. The structures of Atlantic shipbuilding in the 16th century. An archaeological perspective.
View 2 excerpts, cites background. For Sale or Sailors? View 1 excerpt, cites methods. Variously, the central strake of a flush deck or the central strake of a hull without a keel. Knee [Knee timber] Figs. An angular piece of timber used to reinforce the junction of two surfaces of different planes; usually made from the crotch of a tree where two large branches intersected, or where a branch or root joined the trunk. See also Dagger knee , Hanging knee , Lodging knee , and Standing knee. Knee of the head [Head knee] Fig.
A knee or knee-shaped structure, fixed to the forward surface of the stem, that formed the cutwater at its lower end and supported the headrails and figurehead at its upper end. Knightheads Figs. The forwardmost frame timbers, which ran parallel to the stem, their heels being fayed to the forwardmost cant p.
Also, a name given to a pair of bitts, located just aft of the foremast on merchant ships, that supported the ends of the windlass, or to any bitt whose upper end was carved in the shape of a human head. Knuckle timbers Fig. A name sometimes applied to the fore and aft frames in the bow of a roundbowed ship. The hawse pieces and knightheads. Ledge Figs. G-7a and G-7b. A short beam set between and parallel to the deck beams to provide intermediate support of the deck; the ends of ledges were supported by carlings , clamps , or lodging knees.
A large plate, or assembly of timbers, mounted on the side of a hull and lowered when sailing off the wind to increase lateral resistance and reduce leeway. Level lines. Another name for the waterlines on hull plans; they described the horizontal sections of the hull.
Light [Light port]. Limber boards Fig. Ceiling planks next to the keelson which could be removed to clean the limbers; on some ancient vessels, limber boards were laid transversely above the centerline of the keel. Holes or slots were sometimes cut into limber boards so that they could be lifted more easily. Limber holes [Watercourses] Figs. Apertures cut in the bottom surfaces of frames over, or on either side of, the keel to allow water to drain into the pump well.
Limber ledges. Rabbeted timbers running parallel to the keel and atop the floor timbers for the purpose of supporting transverse ceiling planks. Watercourses or channels alongside or central to the keel or keelson, through which water could drain into the pump well. Limber strake Fig. The lowest permanent ceiling strake, fastened to the tops of the frames next to the limber boards and keelson.
Lines [Hull lines]. Frames: a an example of double framing�a square frame of an early-nineteenth-century merchant ship; b two additional commonly used frame timber joints; c room and space of a popular framing plan; d some vessels were framed with a pair of overlapping floor timbers having arms of unequal length, resulting in an even number of timbers in each frame; e lower side view of the framing plan of a large warship, where a pair of single frames called filling frames were set between double frames; futtocks, marked F, are shown by number; in such an arrangement, the room and space included the filling frames; and f bevels and chamfers.
Lining Fig. The common ceiling of the orlop, berthing, and gun decks of ships, set between the spirketting and the clamps. The lining was frequently called quickwork , a term more commonly used in British documents. The upper horizontal timber framing a gunport, large square light, or gallery door. Load line. In some cases the term load line denoted full-load draft. See Draft marks. Locked pintle. A pintle that was flanged or keyed in order to prevent the rudder from accidentally unshipping.
Lodging knee [Lodge knee] Figs. A horizontal, angular timber used to reinforce two perpendicular beams or the junction of a beam and the side of the hull. Another term for the stock of a quarter rudder. Also, the stock, or pole piece, of an oar or sweep. A term used frequently to describe the caulking of lapstrake clinker-built hulls.
In most cases, animal hair, wool, or moss was soaked in pitch or resin and laid in a luting cove , which was cut in the lower inside surface of the overlapping plank. Luting generally refers to caulking inserted between two hull members before they were assembled, as opposed to driven caulking see Caulk. The term is also applied to any plastic material used between two adjacent members. In shipbuilding, the adjective applied to the most important timbers, or those having the greatest cross-sectional area; thus, on ancient vessels the main wale was usually the lowest and largest, while on later warships it was the one below the gunports; also, main breadth, main hatch, main hold, main keelson, etc.
Main frame. A term sometimes applied to frames composed of two rows of futtocks to distinguish them from filling frames, the single-rowed frames placed between them; it applies to larger vessels of the last few centuries.
The term was also used infrequently to denote the midship frame. Main piece Fig. The longest and largest timber in the knee of the head. Also, a term sometimes applied to the main vertical timber, or stock, of a rudder Fig. Mallet Fig. A large hammer with a short handle and a cylindrical wooden head, sometimes hooped with iron to prevent it from splitting, used for caulking caulking mallet and general shipwrightery.
The heaviest mallets were also called beetles. A small compartment, located just inside the hawse hole, whose after bulkhead called a manger board diverted water entering the hawse hole into the limbers. Mast carlings Fig. Fore-and-aft beams that helped support a mast where it pierced a deck; also called mast partners. See Partners. Bow construction: a top view of port frames; b deck hook; c breast hook and hawse hole; and d one of many arrangements used for assembling the knee of the head.
See Partners and Mast carlings. Mast step Figs. A mortise cut into the top of a keelson or large floor timber, or a mortised wooden block or assembly of blocks mounted on the floor timbers or keelson, into which the tenoned heel of a mast was seated. Various types of mast steps are shown in Figure G Maul Fig.
A heavy wood or iron hammer, primarily used to drive large bolts. Stern construction: a stern framing of an eighteenth-century brig; b partial side view of the same stern near the post; c partial top view of the same stern; d lower stern framing of a galleon; e alternate stern details; and f one form of skeg installation on a small sloop.
A thick plank separating the bottom, or lower ship , of a Viking hull from its sides. Either rectangular or L-shaped in cross-section, p. The intersection of a vertical line drawn through the center of gravity of a vessel when it is stable with a vertical line drawn through its center of buoyancy when the vessel is heeled.
Midship [Midships]. A contraction of amidships and consequently, in a general sense, it refers to the middle of the ship. In construction, however, it is often used as an adjective referring to the broadest part of the hull, wherever it may be. Midship beam Fig. The longest beam in a vessel, located at or near the midship bend. Midship bend Fig. The broadest part of the hull; the widest body shape, formed by the centerline of the midship frame. Midship flat [Midship body, Midsection, Midship section].
The extent of the broadest part of the hull, formed by the midship frame and all adjacent frames of the same breadth.
Midship frame Fig. The broadest frame in the hull; the frame representing the midship shape on the body plan. Arrangements likely to be encountered on shipwrecks: a crutches brace the foremast step on the Revolutionary War privateer Defence ; b a mainmast step of the type used on very large eighteenth-century warships; c one of a variety of methods for stepping a mizzenmast; d bowsprits of smaller vessels were sometimes stepped above deck in a broad sampson post as illustrated, or between pairs of riding bitts just below deck; e the bowsprit of a large eighteenth-century warship; and f an athwartships view of the forward surface of the same step, showing its two-piece construction.
Two bend molds and a hollow mold are fitted together to form a compound mold or half of a square frame. Individual molds, probably representing futtocks of frame M, are numbered in Roman numerals. Redrawn from old notebook sketches. Mold [Mould] Fig. A pattern used to determine the shapes of frames and other compass timbers.
Molds were usually made from thin, flexible pieces of wood. Convex molds were called bend molds , concave molds were p. The degree of bevel and other pertinent information was written on the molds.
The process of shaping outer frame surfaces with molds was known as beveling. Figure G illustrates several types of molds. See also Whole molding. Molded [Molded dimension]. The various dimensions of timbers as seen from the sheer and body views of construction plans; the dimensions determined by the molds.
Thus, the vertical surfaces the sides of keels, the fore-and-aft sides of the posts, the vertical or athwartships surfaces of frames, etc. Normally, timbers are expressed in sided and molded dimensions, while planks and wales are listed in thicknesses and widths.
Molded and sided dimensions are used because of the changing orientation of timbers, such as p. Molded depth. The depth of a hull, measured between the top of the upper deck beams at the side and a line parallel to the top of the keel.
Mold loft. A protected area or building in a shipyard where the hull lines, from which the molds were produced, were drawn full size on a specially prepared flat surface.
Mortise Fig. A cavity cut into a timber to receive a tenon. Large mortises were sometimes referred to as steps. Mortise-and-tenon joint Fig. A union of planks or timbers by which a projecting piece tenon was fitted into one or more cavities mortises of corresponding size. The most common types are:. Fixed tenon and single mortise Fig. A tenon was shaped from the end on one timber and inserted into the mortise of the other.
When the tenon of a large vertical timber was left unlocked, as in masts, and sternposts, it was said to be stepped. Free tenon and two mortises Fig. The most common method of edge-joining planking in ancient and early medieval vessels in the Mediterranean area, it also was used to secure adjoining surfaces of parallel timbers, such as stems and floor timber chocks. Corresponding mortises were cut into each planking edge; a single hardwood tenon was inserted into the lower plank and the adjacent plank fitted over the protruding tenon.
In many instances, the joint was locked by driving tapered hardwood pegs into holes drilled near each strake or timber edge. Free tenon and three or more mortises Fig. Used in superstructure fabrications or places where hull planking was too narrow to provide sufficient seating for the desired tenon length.
Although small planking joints whose tenons are unpegged and contribute no structural strength are essentially coak joints , the term mortise-and-tenon joint has become universally accepted for all such forms of edge joinery. Mortising chisel Fig. A specialized chisel used for shaping narrow mortises. Narrowing line. A curved line on the halfbreadth drawing of a hull, designating the curve of maximum breadth or the ends of the floor timbers throughout the length of the hull.
The former was called the maximum breadth line ; the latter was known as the breadth of floor line. Nib [Nibbing end] Fig. The practice of squaring the ends of deck planks where they terminated at the sides of the hull to avoid fine angles and subsequent splitting and distortion. Mortise-and-tenon joints: a fixed tenon and single mortise; b free tenon and two mortises; c free tenon and three mortises; and d patch tenon and two mortises.
Nibbing strake [Margin plank] Fig. A plank running adjacent to the waterways in the ends of a vessel, into which the nibbed ends of deck planks p. English documents most frequently referred to this timber as a margin plank; American contracts more commonly called it a nibbing strake.
Oakum [Oakham]. Caulking material made from rope junk, old rope, and rope scraps; it was unwound, picked apart, and the fibers were rolled and soaked in pitch before being driven into planking seams. See also Sweep port. Orlop deck Fig. The lowest deck of a large ship. Outer stem. A name sometimes given to the main stempost or to the forward layer of timbers in a double-layered stem. Packing piece Fig.
A short piece of timber used to fill open areas between structural timbers; used most frequently at the sides between deck beams or lodging knees.
To surround or enclose with strips of flexible material, as in the reinforcement of caulked planking seams usually lead strips or between ropes and their servings usually strips of canvas.
Partners Fig. The timbers surrounding the deck openings for masts, pumps, bitts, and capstans; their primary purpose was to strengthen the deck around the opening and counteract strain. Partners were also used on occasion to steady masts on undecked vessels.
Patch tenon Fig. In ancient vessels, a headed tenon inserted from the exterior or interior surface of a plank. Patch tenons were normally used in the replacement of rotten or damaged planking.
The name comes from their installed appearance as square patches in the sides of hulls. To coat; to cover a hull bottom with a protective layer of pitch, resin, sulphur, etc. The upper portions of the narrow ends of a vessel; cited individually in some documents as forepeak and afterpeak. Also, a term used to designate the tip of an anchor palm.
Peg [Tenon peg] Fig. A tapered wooden pin driven into a pre-drilled hole to fasten two members or lock a joint. Pegs came in a variety of sizes and tapers; they could have square, round, or multi-sided cross sections. The important difference between dowels and pegs in ancient construction was that the former were of constant diameter and lightly set, while the latter were tapered and driven with appreciable force.
The most common use of pegs in ancient construction was the locking of mortise-and-tenon joints. Pillar Fig. Large vertical stanchion, usually turned or dressed for aesthetic reasons, used to support deck beams or reinforce potentially weak areas.
By the seventeenth century, pairs of pillars, called cross pillars, were set diagonally across the hull to provide transverse strength. Pin rail. A long rack, usually attached to the inside of bulwarks, for holding belaying pins; a short pin rail was called a pin rack. Steering devices: a a Mediterranean balanced quarter-rudder system, ca. Pintle Fig. A vertical pin at the forward edge of a stern-hung rudder that fit into a gudgeon on the sternpost to form a hinge.
On most vessels, p. Pitch [Tar]. A dark, sticky substance used in caulking seams or spread over the inner or outer surfaces of hulls as waterproofing and protection against some forms of marine life. Pitches were variously derived from the resins of certain evergreen trees; from bitumens, such as mineral pitches; or from the distillation of coal tar, wood tar, etc.
Planking Fig. The outer lining, or shell, of a hull. Planking strake [Strake, Streake]. A continuous line of planks, usually running from bow to stern; the sum of a row of planks. Planksheer [Sheer plank] Fig. The strake that described the sheer line of a vessel, attached to the toptimbers from stem to stern at the level of the p.
Also, in various times and places, the name given to the uppermost continuous strake of side planking or the upper edge of the uppermost strake.
In later English documents, a sheer rail or one of the drift rails. Plate knee [Plate] Fig. A knee made from iron plate. Normally superimposed over a timber or wooden chock, iron knees were introduced in the latter part of the eighteenth century. Plug treenail. A piece of straight-grained wood through which metal fastenings were driven. In some cases, pilot holes are said to have been pre-bored through their lengths.
They were not driven into the holes of the planks, but fit rather loosely and expanded tightly when the nails were driven through them. Plug treenails were commonly used on the exterior hull surfaces of ancient ships to prevent leakage and splitting of the planks around the fastenings. Pump well [Sump] Fig. The cavity or compartment in the bottom of a hull, usually near amidships, where bilgewater collected and from which it was pumped out or bailed. Wells ranged from simple sumps between frames to watertight compartments extending the full height of the hold.
Quickwork Fig. The common ceiling of the orlop, berthing, and upper decks as well as the gundeck. It was so named because it did not require caulking or precision joinery and therefore could be erected comparatively quickly.
See also Lining. Rabbet Figs. A groove or cut made in a piece of timber in such a way that the edges of another piece could be fit into it to make a tight joint. Generally, the term refers to the grooves cut into the sides of the keel, stem, and sternpost, into which the garboards and hooding ends of the outer planking were seated.
Rabbet plane Fig. A plane used in smoothing rabbets. Rag bolt Fig. A bolt whose shaft was barbed to prevent it from working out of its hole. The inclination of the stem and sternpost beyond the ends of the keel; also, the inclination of the masts from the perpendicular.
A strong projection on the bow of an ancient warship, usually sheathed in metal, used as a weapon to strike another vessel. Specifically, the ram p. Rams were also used, with little success, on iron warships after the middle of the nineteenth century. Ram bow. Any bow with a projecting forefoot or ram. Ram bows sometimes served non-military functions: a means of reinforcing the bow construction externally, a method of lengthening the waterline to improve lateral resistance and maneuverability, or a decoration or symbol.
Ramming timber. The main timber of an ancient ram, projecting forward from its envelope of bow planks and timbers to reinforce the head of the ram. Reaming beetle [Reeming beetle] Fig. The heaviest caulking mallet, used with a reaming iron for opening seams so that caulking could be driven into them. Reaming iron [Reeming iron] Fig. An iron chisel used for opening planking seams for caulking. A small transverse member, often flexible and composed of one or several pieces, that stiffened the outer skin of a hull.
Ribband carvel. The designation for a carvel-planked hull whose seams were covered with battens, or ribbands, to prevent the caulking from working out. Ribbands [Ribbons, Battens]. Long, flexible strips of wood most commonly used as temporary keepers by nailing them across the outside of standing frames while the vessel was being built. When the term framed on ribbands was popular in the last few centuries of wooden shipbuilding, the ribbands were sometimes carefully arranged to represent certain rising and narrowing lines, from which planking and intermediate frame shapes were Wooden Ship Building And The Interpretation Of Shipwrecks Of derived.
Rider [Rider frame] Fig. An internal frame seated atop the ceiling, to which it was fastened; riders could be single pieces, but more often they were complete frames composed of floor timbers, futtocks, and top timbers. Installed either transversely or diagonally, they provided extra stiffening.
Rider keel Fig. One or more additional keels bolted to the bottom of the main keel to increase its strength. Rider keelson Fig. An additional keelson, or one of several additional keelsons, bolted to the top of the main keelson of a large ship.
In some documents, it was called a False keelson. See also Keelson. Riding bitts Fig. Strong, upright timbers in the bow of a ship, to which the anchor cables and hawsers were secured. A claw-like tool used for removing old copper or wooden sheathing. Rising line Fig. A curved line on the sheer drawing of a ship, designating the outer ends of the floor timbers or the height of maximum breadth throughout the length of the hull.
The former line was called the rise of floor line or the floor head line ; the latter was known as the height of breadth line. See also Narrowing lines. Rising wood [Deadwood, Hog] Figs. Timbers fastened to the top of the keel and notched into the bottom of the floor timbers to better secure those members to each other and give the proper rising to the floor timbers. Rising wood was located between the apron or forward deadwood and the after deadwood, and was sometimes referred to as the central or keel deadwood.
Rockered keel. A keel that is curved longitudinally so that it is deeper at its middle than at its ends. The term also refers to keels that are molded to a greater dimension amidships than at their ends. Rocker should not be confused with sag , which is an accidental rocker. Room and space Fig.
The distance from a molded edge of one frame to the corresponding point on an adjoining frame, usually measured at or near the keelson. The part occupied by the frame is called the room , while the unoccupied distance between it and the adjacent frame is called the space.
On large ships of the last few centuries, where filling frames were placed between double frames, the term applied to the distance between the molded edge of one double frame to the corresponding point on the next double frame. Because of the uneven Siding of forward frame faces, irregular spacing, and varying methods of fabrication, room and space is often a meaningless term in ancient hull documentation.
A more definitive designation for ancient ships is average frame spacing , the average of distances between frame centerlines at a common appropriate location, taken throughout the hull or hold. Rove [Roove] Fig. A small metal washer, used in clinker-built hulls, over which nail or rivet ends are flattened to lock the fastening.
The term was also applied to washers used in bolting scarfs, floor timbers, etc. Roving iron Fig. An iron, hollow-ended tool used to drive roves over the ends of nails and bolts before clenching. Rudder Fig. A timber, or assembly of timbers, that could be rotated about an axis to control the direction of a vessel underway. Until the middle of the medieval period, the practice was to mount rudders on one or both stern quarters; these were known as quarter rudders.
By the late medieval period, however, it appears that most vessels of appreciable size were steered by a single rudder hung at the sternpost; these were known as stern-hung rudders. For a brief period, the two types were sometimes used in combination. Rudders were designed for the vessel and type of duty they p. In protected waters they could be made quite broad, while seagoing ships utilized longer, more narrow rudders.
For the largest seagoing ships, rudder construction was complex and required huge timbers, the assembly sometimes weighing several tons. Rudder blade Fig. The flat part of the rudder that diverts the water. Rudder breeching. A strong rope with one end attached to the rudder and the other inside the stern, used to relieve some of the weight on the gudgeons.
Rudder chains. Chains or ropes attached to each side of the rudder and to the stern, used to prevent the loss of a rudder if it accidentally became unshipped. Rudder head Fig.
The upper part of the rudder stock. Rudder hole Fig. An opening in the stern through which the rudder stock passed. Rudder post. A term infrequently used to describe either the outer sternpost or the rudder stock. Rudder sheath Fig. A wooden or metal protective covering placed over the leading edge of a quarter rudder blade. Rudder stock Fig. A strong vertical piece to which the tiller was fitted; on large, post-medieval vessels it was the main vertical timber of the rudder, and it was also known as the mainpiece.
Rudder trunk. A housing for the rudder stock, usually extending from the counter to the steering deck. Sag [Sagging]. The accidental rocker formed in a keel and bottom due to insufficient timbering or improper loading. Scarf [Scarph]. An overlapping joint used to connect two timbers or planks without increasing their dimensions.
Figure G illustrates various scarfs used throughout shipbuilding history. Scupper Fig. A small opening, usually covered with a lid, in the side or deck for utilitarian purposes, such as a ballast port. The longitudinal joint between two timbers or planks; the term usually refers to planking seams, the longitudinal juxtaposition of the edges of planks in the sides or decks, which were made watertight.
A longitudinal crack or distortion in a timber, caused by sun, weather, or improper curing. Cracks occurring during curing are also referred to as checks. A thin covering of metal or wood, to protect hulls from marine life or fouling, or to stabilize and protect surface material applied for that purpose. Sheathing was most commonly used in the form of copper, lead, zinc, or alloy sheets, or thin wooden planks known as furring or deals.
G-9c and G-9d. A small nail or tack used to attach sheathing to a hull. Sheer line. Specifically, the line of the upper or main deck where it meets the side, but the term is often used to describe the sweep of the bulwarks or weather rail. Shelf wale. On ancient and early medieval ships, a thick strake of external planking that supported through-beams and other timbers penetrating the outer planking. Shell-first construction [Shell-built]. A modern sometimes misleading term used to describe the process by which all or part of the outer hull planking was erected before frames were attached to it.
In pure shell-built hulls, outer planking was self-supporting and formed the primary structure; the framework fastened to it formed the secondary, or stiffening, structure. The act of arranging butts and scarfs so that adjacent joints are not in vertical alignment, thereby avoiding possible hull weaknesses.
A thin piece of wood used to fill a separation between two timbers or a frame and a plank. A master craftsman skilled in the construction and repair of ships. Probably in many more areas and periods than have been documented, the term designated a formal title, such as the shipwrights to the English monarchs, or a level of expertise qualifying admission to a guild or association.
Shoe Figs. A term variously applied to the cover for an anchor fluke or a protecting piece at the bottom of a keel or rudder. See Anchor and False keel. Shole [Sole, Shoe] Fig. A horizontal piece of wood or metal fixed along the bottom of a rudder to protect the lower ends of the vertical rudder pieces and align the bottom of the rudder with the bottom of the false keel. A prop or pole used to brace a vessel in an upright position when not afloat or supported by a cradle.
Shot locker Fig.
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