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Each thing is upon a single grade solely a overpassYank vessel craig mm1522 devise. In such the vehicleSC. Grilling over ambiguous regard is harder upon the tiny griddle since a colourless is still nearby a in progress building .

As I said in the chapter the sheer amount of resources to build them often means that such spacecraft are unique. Serving more as a status symbol than anything else. This triggered financial investors to begin dumping French stock on mass and caused the French economy to go into free fall. At which point peace negotiations would begin and last to the end of the year. At which point peace negotiations would begin and last until the end of the year.

Morgomir said:. I fixed the paragraph based on your recommendations. Your right it does flow better. Thank you for pointing it out. A thought occurred to me. It wouldn't be difficult at all for this iteration of BritGate-dom to develop a cloaked sentry satellite network. The purpose of which would be to act as a redundant series of shield emitters, intended to decloak and activate overlapping wide-area shields, to give planetary populations more time to get to properly hardened locations.

This would be based on those radiation shield emitters that work in pairs from S01E06, just with more juice due to operating with larger numbers of emitters. This wouldn't stand up to sustained hostile bombardment, but even if such grid could only endure for an hour or two that would allow for a massive difference in evacuation readiness. Obviously they'd be using Nerus' cracked Ba'al database for this rather than the actual objects from the world of that particular episode.

Worth noting: the radiation shields are common enough goa'uld tech that Jaffa know how to operate them and think nothing of finding them in an abandoned world as Teal'c did. Bonus points if you do the grid in two layers, and use the inner grid as both the real shield layer and interdiction weaponry placements, relying on the outer layer to provide firing coordinates for the point defense plasma cannons to target on the basis of the location the radiation-only shield layer is breached, as a range-finding mechanism on account of how plasma cannon weapons' fire is very likely radar-transparent.

This concept works much, much better if you can have shields active with cloaks simultaneously, obviously -- and since you can Matrioshka Doll the satellite grids you could even quiet down any political objections to the grid being found out simply by not adding point defense weaponry to the bottom layer. This same concept could quite likely work for city shields as well, since it wouldn't be based on the Lanteans stupidly fuckhuge single-edifice design philosophy.

At the very least, it would work for the point defense concept. I figure the point defense thing would work on any goa'uld weaponry except the supercapital beam weapons, since goa'uld plasma cannons operate by lobbing energy-field bottled bolloids of plasma.

Give said bolloids something to hit before the destination target and they'll burst there instead of the thing they were aimed at.

There's no particular reason why this couldn't also be plasma bolloids fired at incoming bolts aside from the difficulty of reacting in time to do so. Which can be minimized by the trick of interdicting your own shots at a point just in front of the incoming fire fire two shots such that they slam into each other and burst like AA flak cannon fire as near to the enemy fire as possible.

This would do nasty things to unhardened power grids, mind you, but Plus -- this is honestly low hanging fruit in the goa'uld tech tree, and it's just part of a defense-in-depth that is antithetical to the goa'uld supremacy and war doctrines. They value, most of the time, ha'tak vastly more than they do any given world. Obviously the Brits have a different set of values when it comes to defending their territory.

Technically a double-post, but it's days apart and given the core premise of this thread, this is relevant. The actor who played Ba'al just died today. Logos01 said:. Last edited: Mar 12, Saw that news that Cliff Simon passed away yesterday.

Terrible tragedy. Glazing included with selected buildings. Afghan Single Storey House A slightly larger house of a typical Afghan design to enable the fantastic range of Airfix Afghanistan models come to life. As with the first house there is space inside to place figures to further enhance the modelling possibilities.

Attacking and bombing bridges across Europe was a strategic necessity throughout WWII and this model represents a typical ruined example that makes for excellent possibilities for modelling superb dioramas as well as wargaming features. The three stories and steps make for plenty of diorama and gaming opportunities. During the fierce battles in the narrow streets of many Italian towns, buildings like this were bombarded by both sides to try and extract dug-in troops.

The destruction caused by this and the later Soviet counter offensives during and meant many important buildings were ruined. This bank building typifies this destruction. Czechoslovakia was annexed by Nazi Germany in , but it was not until the Soviet forces streaming across from the east in and that massive destruction of cities, towns and villages took place.

This restaurant building makes for a perfect focal point for modelling a scene from this period. These city steps enable a huge scope of modelling opportunities to be created, and these types of steps are to be found right across Europe.

Great to be used in wargaming scenarios too , and even larger scale figures can be used with these. Airfix Battles lets you plan your army using the Force Deck.

Draw the cards or select the ones you need to build an exciting army to challenge your friends. Each player has a hand of Command Cards to move and fight their forces, bring in airstrikes or artillery support.

You never know what your opponent is going to do next! Prepare to top up your troops, call in reinforcements and commit your reserves for your favourite Airfix Battles forces, with this brand new set of 24 bonus Force Cards for the Airfix Battles wargame and PDF of 10 missions set around Operation Cobra!

It's the perfect set of Force Cards to expand and extend your Airfix Battles wargame adventures and along with Operation Cobra lets you expand your Airfix Battles game for new exciting missions!

Tactical level air combat tabletop game for two or more players. Written by Andy Chambers, Blood Red Skies is a tabletop miniatures game where you take command of a force of fighter aircraft in battle. The emphasis in Blood Red Skies is on action and the game is fast-paced, with no pre-plotting or book-keeping required.

A game of Blood Red Skies with two planes per side can be fought in twenty minutes or less. Aeroplanes are the most exciting machines produced by man and have been a source of fascination since the Wright Brothers made their first successful manned, powered flight in Our Aerodrome blog is produced with a love of all things aviation at its heart and is published in the community section of both the Airfix and Corgi websites.

It is an indulgence in the subject of aviation and includes reports from Airshows and Museums, special aviation related events around the UK and regularly features historic articles from our extensive archives.

Whether reporting from the atmospheric surroundings of the Great War airfield at Stow Maries, or bringing you the thrill of the flying action from the latest Royal International Air Tattoo, Aerodrome is the blog where aviation enthusiasts come together to share their passion for aviation. Would you like to find out all the very latest news from the Airfix development team including new tooling announcements and modelling exclusives?

If the answer is yes, you need to join the thousands of modelling enthusiasts all over the world who regularly read our Airfix Workbench blog, which is published every two weeks on the community section of Airfix website and now one of our most popular publications.

Providing readers with a fascinating insight behind the scenes at Airfix, Workbench is proud to bring our readers the very latest information and updates from the most eagerly anticipated new tooling projects and is full of exclusive content, reader supplied articles and interesting modelling related features. If you want to be the first to find out about new model tooling announcements or see the latest box artwork reveals before anyone else, then Airfix Workbench is the blog for you.

There is an interesting story behind every one of the kits featured in the Airfix model range and our Workbench blog is the place where you can discover everything you need to know. This gives you the chance to compare sizes, number of pieces and the choices available. Licence Acknowledgements Produced under licensed. All rights are reserved. The models have been produced with the permission and assistance of Leonardo MW Ltd.

Standard is a trademark owned and licensed by British Motor Heritage Limited. Licensing agents LMI. The McLaren name and logo are registered trademarks of McLaren. All rights reserved. Distributed by Hornby Hobbies Ltd.

All Rights Reserved. Manufactured and distributed by Hornby Hobbies Ltd. With kind consent of L'Aventure Peugeot. Every effort is made to give a true and fair representation of our products within this publication and we thank our partners for their support. Maserati logo and model designations are registered trademarks of exclusive propriety of Maserati S.

Under licence of Maserati S. Manufactured under license from Northrop Grumman Systems Corporation. Manufactured under licence from Bentley Motors Limited England.

The body designs of Bentley motor cars are protected by Bentley Motors Limited under design, trademark and intellectual property law. Museums Pocher released its first scale model kit back in - the Fiat HP F2. The Panigale R Final Edition is produced in a numbered, limited series, and represents the perfect mix between high performance engine and racing chassis.

The Ducati Panigale R Final Edition Pocher model is made of premium metal die-cast and is supplied ready painted. The kit is easy to build and supplied with detailed instructions. The model consists of more than parts made of an assortment of materials including metal, rubber and premium quality plastic. Wheels, transmission chain, front and rear suspension, brake and clutch levers are all functional and offer an amazing amount of accurate detail.

Code: HK Dimentions: Length Motorcycle Display Case Code: HK Size: mm x mm x mm This premium-quality display case has been especially designed to present and protect your Pocher model kit. The case is made of highly transparent acrylic of 5 mm thickness, and is provided with a black wooden base which is fully velvet flocked.

The display case also features holes and screws to fix the model to the base. Firstly in Gold Leaf colours and then in the stunning black and gold of JPS, the Lotus 72 swept all before it in the early s, proving to be the class of the field.

This amazing Pocher model features detail from the monocoque chassis right up, through the suspension and engine components to the incredibly detailed cockpit. All logos are faithfully recreated and with real rubber tyres this impressive model will become the star of any collection of motorsport heroes, famous cars, or pieces of art.

Your guide to the full Humbrol range of paints and accessories starts here! Please visit www. This superb paint can also be used as an art and craft paint on many different surfaces, both indoors and outdoors. All the colours in the new Dropper Bottle range can be mixed to create your own colour palette. Mixing matt with gloss colours can be also done, it just means that the finish achieved will be more satin. They are also suitable for airbrushing.

Intermixing metallics also is possible. Use this specially designed palette for either brushing the paint droplets from the bottles, or blending and mixing different colours together.

Easily washed with water after use when using these water-based paints. Start as you mean to finish. Weathering Powders 45ml Humbrol Weathering Powders are a versatile means of adding realistic weathering effects to your models, figures and dioramas.

They can be mixed to create different shades, enabling a full range of finishes including dust, mud, soot, rust and many more. Enamel Washes 28ml Enhance your models with the Humbrol Enamel Washes range, designed for a wide range of uses they are easy to use and very durable.

These sets are particularly helpful for anyone using these excellent paints for non-plastic modelling hobbies and tasks. The perfect package for any modeling project Please visit www. The product is a lower viscosity version of Polycement to enable application by brush AE 28ml bottle.

Poly Cement A solvent-based cement suitable for plastic model kits only. AE 12ml medium tube AE 24ml large tube. It can also be used for making small windows or translucent areas of 3mm or less.

AC 28ml bottle. A solvent-based cement suitable for plastic model kits only. Its viscosity is low to enable precision delivery of fine amounts of cement AE 20ml precision poly dispenser. Model Filler A fine grade model filler which can be sanded, filed and painted once dry. AE 31ml tube. Turn your model kit into a masterpiece!

Acrylic Thinners Humbrol Acrylic Thinners has been especially formulated to enhance the quality and usability of Humbrol Acrylic paint when brushing and airbrushing. The Thinners includes a retardant which reduces the drying rate and greatly improves the use of Acrylic paint when airbrushing. Can also be used to clean your brushes after use with Acrylic paint. Used to thin down Humbrol Enamel paints most commonly for airbrushing.

Can also be used to thin down other solvent based products such as Enamel Washes, Modelcotes and Model Filler. AC 28ml bottle AC ml bottle.

These thin, water-based self-levelling varnishes are ideal for brush and airbrush. You have the option of three finishes, these are; Gloss, Matt or Satin with a higher level of any achieved by applying further thin coats. A water based solution that softens decals and secures them in place by drawing the decal around and in any panel lines. Decals are permanent once dry. A rubber solution that can be applied to surfaces to prevent them from being painted.

When the paint has dried the Maskol can simply be peeled off. Gloss Cote Satin Cote Matt Cote A solvent-based varnish that goes on clear and dries clear, overcoming the yellowing effect associated with traditional varnishes. The product dries to a smooth, high-sheen gloss finish. A solvent-based varnish that goes on clear and dries clear, overcoming the yellowing effect associated with traditional varnishes.

The product dries to a smooth, low-sheen matt finish. The Coloro range of brushes are perfectly suited for all paint types, but are particularly good when used in conjunction with the new Humbrol Acrylic Paint.

Made from man-made fibre. The Palpo natural sable hair brushes are the ultimate modelling brush, keeping their points and shape to allow for accurate and detailed painting, particularly figure work. The easy grip ergonomic handles make them a pleasure to use for short or long periods of time.

Suitable for Enamel and Acrylic paints. Made from high quality soft synthetic hair, the Flat Brush pack is perfect for creating a smooth professional finish. Ideal for painting large surface areas, weathering, adding washes and helping to apply decals. The Stipple Brushes have been designed with heavy dry brushing and weathering in mind. Made from a tough natural hair, which is perfect when adding those finishing touches when bringing your models to life.

Suitable for Enamel and Acrylic paints, as well as Weathering Powder. Specifically designed for the Airfix and plastic kit modeller � sprue clippers, tweezers, needle file and knife; all designed for making the perfect model. Airbrushes All Purpose Airbrush A great beginners airbrush to introduce the skill of airbrushing at a great value price. Use with cans of Humbrol Airbrush Propellant or a compressor.

All purpose airbrush blister AG Whether it is your first ever model build or your collection is in to the hundreds these products will help you get the most out of your build. A fast drying acrylic-based paint for use not only on plastic kits, but also on other substrates including, polycarbonate, wood, glass, ceramics, metal, card and many more craft and DIY uses.

Humbrol Metalcotes have been designed to give the appearance of polished metals. Once dry, polish with a soft cloth until you reach the desired look. Hornby SkaleScenics is an extensive range of materials to furnish any model landscape. Focussing on natural flora and textures, no modeller will be limited by season or geography - our rocks, turf, model trees and rough ground cover are perfect for any layout set at any time of year.

Handmade for finer quality, the SkaleScenics Profi Tree range will bring added scenic detail to any model railway or diorama. The trunks of the trees are painted by hand so that no shining plastic surfaces are left visible and to give more volume. All of the branches are covered with fine wool before they are flocked. This mimics the leaf shapes and colours of a real tree and, as in nature, only the fine branches of the PROFI trees have leaves, so this is replicated in our range.

Note: To cover an area of 1m2 you will need approximately g scatter material and g of Grass Glue. A solvent-based, fast-dry paint developed for use on plastic model kits but which can also be used on other substrates see right. A wide range of surfaces including most plastics, wood, glass, ceramics, metal, cardboard, sealed plaster, sealed hardboard and many more.

A water-based, fast dry paint developed for use on plastic model kits but which can also be used on other substrates. Matt, Satin, Gloss, Metallic and Clear finishes are available. Weathering Powder can be applied to most substrates depending on the method. For full details, please visit the Humbrol website.

Humbrol Enamel Washes can be applied to most substrates depending on the method. Common plastics used to manufacture model kits including polystyrene and ABS. Fills hairline cracks and gaps between plastic parts. The product can be sanded when fully dry using a fine grade of sandpaper and painted. Decals are usually applied onto painted surfaces. A rubber solution that can be applied to surfaces to prevent them being painted.

When the paint has dried the Maskol can be simply peeled off. Common plastics used to manufacture model kits including polystyrene and ABS and a wide variety of other applications including glass. Matt cote is usually applied as the final coat to a fully painted and decaled model.

A water soluble, self-levelling medium in either gloss, matt or satin that can be used to prepare surfaces. Gloss varnish can be used to prepare surfaces for decals and to improve the appearance of clear parts.

Pleasevisit visitwww. Humbrol offers a fantastic range of products that have many applications and can be used on a wide variety of surfaces. The following table is designed to help match the correct product for the job, ensuring a perfect finish every time.

Brush straight from the tin. Airbrush with a suitable thinner such as Humbrol Enamel Thinners. Two thin coats are preferable to one thick coat. The usual thinning ratio is 2 parts paint to 1 part Humbrol Enamel Thinner.

Note that Metalcote colours are designed to be polished when fully dry. Gloss: hours. Metallics: hard dry in approx. Recoat: 6 hours minimum. Brush straight from the tin or Airbrush with a suitable thinner such as water. The usual thinning ratio is 2 parts paint to one part Humbrol Acrylic Thinner. Spray at least 25cm from the substrate and spray with an even back and forth action.

Once dry polish with a soft dry cloth. Weathering Powder can be applied dry or mixed with several Humbrol products. Brush straight from the jar. Thin with Humbrol Enamel Thinners. More details will are available on the Humbrol website. Directly onto plastic model kits.

A cocktail stick can be useful to apply sparingly to small areas or fine details. Product is permanent once dry. Directly onto substrate without excessive application of product. If gaps are deep two thin coats are preferable to one thick coat. A cocktail stick is usually the most practical means of application.

Run a small drop of Clearfix around the edge of the window then draw across the opening to produce a thin membrane. Brush on to decals or immerse them in Decalfix for approx. Slide off using a brush and dab dry with tissue paper. Brush only. Apply to surface, allow to dry and paint over. When paint is dry peel off the Maskol. Surface dry in 1 hour. Fully dry after 24 hours. Drying times will vary according to ambient temperature and humidity.

Recoat after 24 hours. Apply thinly with a brush or airbrush. To achieve a higher level of the desired finish, apply additional coats. Do not use in temperatures below 10 degrees C or in conditions of high humidity. Surface dry in 30 mins. Recoat once dry. Avoid temperature change during application and drying time. This catalogue shows items planned for introduction in Delivery periods and kit options may be subject to variation.

Some items included in this edition may be subject to Licensor approval. See More. Starter Sets Are ideal for beginners and include glue, paint and brushes with one finish option. Gift Sets Are ideal for more advanced modellers and include glue, paint and brushes. History A small piece of history is included on the top of each Airfix kit box. Skill level The skill level, from 1 to 4, explains how difficult the model will be.

Schemes The scheme options are outlined on the top of the box to show how many choices of scheme are available, with their markings and descriptions. Decals The side profiles on the front show how many decal options are possible and what they will look like. Product code The product code is unique to each kit. All these sets contain paint, adhesive and brushes. Vc Code: A One of the most famous aircraft ever to take to the skies and one which is as familiar today as it was during the savage dogfights of the Battle of Britain, the Supermarine Spitfire was designed as a short range, high performance interceptor, taking inspiration from the inter-war seaplanes which had competed for the Schneider Trophy.

Available Now Hawker Hurricane Mk. I Code: A One of the greatest fighter aircraft of WWII, this version fought alongside the Spitfire and actually shot down and destroyed more aircraft during the Battle of Britain in the summer of than its even more famous partner!

Available Now Mary Rose Code: A Famous as the only Tudor era war ship preserved anywhere in the world, the Mary Rose was a Carrack type vessel that served for many years before her final action on the 19th of July Available Now 34 Please visit www.

Available Now Hawker Typhoon Mk. Ib Code: A Designed initially to replace the Hawker Hurricane as the complementary high-altitude fighter to the Supermarine Spitfire, the Typhoon instead found its fame as a low altitude ground attack aircraft, spearheading the airborne assault through occupied Europe after D-Day.

Available Now Panavia Tornado F. Available Now Please visit www. Available Now www. Vb Messerschmitt BfE Dogfight Double Code: A Between June and November the small but strategically important island of Malta, situated in the Mediterranean Sea, became the most heavily bombed place on earth when first Italian and then German bombers attempted to force the island to surrender.

Available Now Spitfire Mk. Available Now R. Code: A mm Available Now R. Available Now Code: A www. Available Now Mitsubishi A6M2b Zero Code: A The A6M2b Zero fighter marked the beginning of a new era in naval aviation and was the first shipboard fighter capable of outperforming landbased aircraft. Available Now Messerschmitt BfE-4 Code: AA When the diminutive Messerschmitt Bf entered service in February , it was one of the most advanced aircraft in the world, clearly heralding the future of fighter design.

Available Now Supermarine Spitfire Mk. Available Now Fokker E. Vc Code: A www. Available Now Gloster Gladiator Mk. Available Now de Havilland Vampire T. I Code: A Often maligned as a failure, the Boulton Paul Defiant proved its effectiveness as a night fighter during the Blitz by shooting down more enemy aircraft than any other type. Available Now de Havilland Tiger Moth Code: A A familiar sight at airfields all over the world, the de Havilland Tiger Moth primary trainer made its first flight back in and went on to provide British and Commonwealth air forces with thousands of trained pilots for their operational squadrons.

Available Now Bristol Blenheim Mk. Available Now Avro Lancaster B. Available Now Vickers Wellington Mk. Available Now Available Now Please visit www. Available Now Folland Gnat T. XIV Civilian Schemes Code: A Possessing grace, beautifully clean lines and lots of power, several Spitfires would survive the war to become highly distinctive aircraft on the civilian aviation scene either operating as Airshow display aircraft, or competing in air race competitions around the world.

Available Now Gloster Meteor F. Available Now Supermarine Walrus Mk. Available Now Hawker Hunter F. I Code: A www. Canadair Sabre F. Available Now 74 Please visit www. IV The Cromwell can trace its history back to late and the decision to find a replacement for the widely used Crusader tank. Available Now 78 Please visit www. VI 79 Code: A SCALE Even though the new British A27M Cromwell Tank would not make its combat introduction until the Allied invasion of Normandy in June , the speed and mobility of this excellent new tank would soon earn it an enviable reputation amongst Allied troops, who came to rely on the support they provided.

G Code: A M. Available Now Cromwell Mk. I Code: AV www. Available Now 94 Please visit www. Available Now SdKfz. Available Autumn - 21 www. Available Now Astronauts This 57 part set consists of US Astronaut action figures and equipment to transport them across the surface of the moon. Available Now U. Available Now Italian Farmhouse Code: A saw the Allies invading what was still a hostile Italy, and this farmhouse is typical of those found across south and central parts.

Available Now Czech Restaurant Code: A Czechoslovakia was annexed by Nazi Germany in , but it was not until the Soviet forces streaming across from the east in and that massive destruction of cities, towns and villages took place. Available Now European City Steps Code: A These city steps enable a huge scope of modelling opportunities to be created, and these types of steps are to be found right across Europe.

Code: A Tactical level air combat tabletop game for two or more players. Vc A Hawker Tempest Mk. Military Tractor 74 1 2 2 82 70 www. Every effort is made to give a true and fair representation of our products within this publication and we thank our partners for their support Maserati logo and model designations are registered trademarks of exclusive propriety of Maserati S.

A official licensed product. A great gift idea! The product is a lower viscosity version of Polycement to enable application by brush AE 28ml bottle Poly Cement A solvent-based cement suitable for plastic model kits only.

Its viscosity is low to enable precision delivery of fine amounts of cement AE 20ml precision poly dispenser A quick-drying transparent cement for balsa, soft woods and cork. AE 24ml tube Masking Tape Perfect for masking small areas. AE 31ml tube Turn your model kit into a masterpiece!

AC Gloss ml bottle A rubber solution that can be applied to surfaces to prevent them from being painted. AC 28ml bottle AC 28ml bottle A solvent-based varnish that goes on clear and dries clear, overcoming the yellowing effect associated with traditional varnishes. AC 28ml bottle www. Detail pack. Size , 0, 2, 4 � AG Stipple Brushes Made from high quality soft synthetic hair, the Flat Brush pack is perfect for creating a smooth professional finish.

Flat pack. Size 3, 5, 7, 10 � AG Please visit www. Stipple pack. Classic Trees Handmade for finer quality, the SkaleScenics Profi Tree range will bring added scenic detail to any model railway or diorama. R Fruit Trees 80mm Three per pack The trunks of the trees are painted by hand so that no shining plastic surfaces are left visible and to give more volume.

Static Grass R Spring Meadow, 2. Acrylic Paint A water-based, fast dry paint developed for use on plastic model kits but which can also be used on other substrates. Acrylic Spray A solvent-based, fast-dry paint developed for use on plastic model kits but which can also be used on other substrates see right.

Overcoat for the applicable paint type. Metal Cote Spray Creates a polished look once dry and buffed. Weathering Powder Used to create realistic weathered effects. Enamel Wash Used to create realistic weathered, oiled and grime effects on scale models. Model Filler Fills hairline cracks and gaps between plastic parts. Plastic model kits. Balsa Cement A quick-drying transparent cement for balsa, other soft woods and cork. Balsa, other soft woods and cork.

Decalfix A water-based solution for softening decals and securing them into position. Maskol A rubber solution that can be applied to surfaces to prevent them being painted. Enamel Thinner Thinning down of solvent-based enamel paints, most commonly for airbrushing. Enamel paint and other Humbrol solvent based products. Acrylic Thinner Thinning down of Humbrol Acrylic paints, most commonly for airbrushing.

Acrylic paint. The exception to this is a variant on Type III when both sides are deploying forces to the objective. If the US and China decide to fight around Mars, but avoid conflict on Earth, a largely symmetrical war is possible. This assumes that the Martian colonies themselves are evenly matched or minor compared to the forces deployed. It is impossible to wage symmetrical warfare with an equal opponent if the objective is anything but destruction.

Total destruction of a roughly equal opponent is possible, but only at the gravest risk to yourself. If the objective is anything else, then a large advantage is required.

One point that is commonly brought up in the discussion of space warfare is the three-dimensional nature of space, and the need to think in three dimensions. While this is technically true, it is probably not as big of a factor as it is often portrayed to be. First, efficient transfers will be in the ecliptic plane, which means that most of the deployments will be made in that plane, in two dimensions.

Even if one side chooses an inefficient transfer to avoid this, they would have to split up their force on the way to achieve meaningful separation between its elements, throwing away any advantage of surprise it might give them. Second, ships will be generally unable to maneuver in combat as described above , limiting the impact of any brilliant 3-D tactics, as the opponent will have plenty of time to respond.

Third, humans have been fighting in a 3-D environment for almost a century, and with a little bit of training, most people do not seem to have a problem thinking in 3-D. All but the most inexperienced officers will be familiar with the fact that space is not 2-D, and react accordingly. Many of the fleets found in modern Sci-Fi broadly follow the pattern seen in fleets since the start of the 20 th Century, with the big ships of the fleet surrounded by escorts of various types.

The existence of fleet escorts is a recent development, and they are not likely to move into space. Up through the Age of Sail, fleet actions were fought by the major warships alone. Smaller craft that travelled with the fleet were for scouting, a function that will not exist in space.

The first fleet escort was the Torpedo Boat Destroyer, introduced to counter the threat of the torpedo boat. The TBD evolved into the destroyer, which during the first half of the 20 th century became a vital part of the fleet.

It was tasked with protecting the fleet from submarines, aircraft, and surface torpedo attacks, along with conducting torpedo attacks on the enemy fleet. However, none of these functions has an analogue in space. Submarines and naval aircraft rely on the fact that there are three fundamentally different environments in close proximity, a feature that does not apply to space. This is not to say that no smaller vessels would exist.

During the Age of Sail, ships below the line played an important role. Besides scouting, they protected convoys, hunted commerce, patrolled, and showed the flag.

While scouting and patrolling are not likely to have spaceborne analogues, commerce warfare and general station duties will, and smaller warships will exist to fill those roles. For a broad overview of some of the issues, study this penetrating analysis by the man known as Sikon. Weapons like particle beams and lasers may have "unlimited ammo" if a space warship's electrical power generation and storage system is powered by nuclear reactors, with gigawatts or more of firepower.

Such is from a MIT study on ultracapacitors for future cars, implied here. That would be up to 0. Technology of the distant future may be superior, but the preceding is a reasonable lower limit. Energy storage is not the only limiting factor, though. What is the recharge rate from warship power generation? The energy content of fission, fusion, or antimatter fuel can matter less for the attainable electricity generation than engineering limits.

Even before melting, metals weaken if temperatures rise from more heat transfer into them than coolant systems take away; parts deform if subject to excessive mechanical stress; etc.

For example, plutonium "fuel" in a bomb allows a power-to-mass ratio of billions of gigawatts of heat and radiation per kilogram during the fraction of a microsecond of detonation, but that of a plutonium-fueled power plant must be orders of magnitude less. A nuclear-electric concept with a MHD generator was estimated to obtain 0. For perspective, car engines of today are sometimes hundreds of kW of mechanical power per ton i.

Even with need for electricity rather than mechanical power alone, the many thousands of tons involved in a space warship would allow it to have nuclear power generation at least in the gigawatt range or higher, likely terawatts for large ships. There would also be inefficiencies.

Radiator mass for the weapons is going to depend much upon acceptable operating temperature. If most parts of the weapons can operate at moderately high temperature, the waste heat from high power consumption can be transferred away fast enough without excessive radiator size. One study of what is obtainable for heat rejection in space with merely today's technology indicates that 30 MW of heat could be dealt with by a 45 metric-ton Curie point radiator CPR or by a 29 metric-ton liquid droplet radiator, for an average temperature of degrees Celsius or K.

The space warship would operate at least in the gigawatt range, with orders of magnitude greater heat rejection from its weapons, but it could afford to have orders of magnitude greater radiator system mass. And it would be more advanced, higher-performance technology. The 0. That's not practical for a spaceship; you're not going to run your radiators at K, nor are you going to use liquid nitrogen as a heat sink.

Using a higher temperature heat dump will reduce efficiency or power density or both ; in practice the heat dump has to operate at the same temperature as the radiator. Assuming a 10 GW reactor, it's likely going to have a heat output of GW. A 10 GW reactor produces 40 GW of heat. A perfect blackbody at K has a heat output of A perfect blackbody could radiate from both sides, but if we're using a non-solid radiator of real materials it's not a perfect blackbody, so we'll just have a wing with an area of 1 million square meters.

Assuming our ship is M long, that means the radiator wing is 5 kilometers long. I think not. So much for heat radiators. Let's shift over to heat sinks.

We'll use water, since it's easy to work with. This gives us a heat sink at around K, so we'll double our efficiency; a 10 GW reactor now produces only 15 GW of heat. If we allow the steam to vent which more or less requires dumping it to space; you need a phase change, which means you can't keep the water compressed we get another 20 TJ.

It will produce low temperature heat, well suited to our water sinks and nearly impossible to radiate away with our high temperature radiators. A 10, ton weapon system requires a power input averaging 10 GW, and a peak power input of 50 GW. During 1 duty cycle we produce GJ of waste heat from the weapon. Generating 1 TJ produces another 1.

We'll round up, and discover that we can run through 2 second duty cycles without venting coolant, and another 8 by venting coolant. Our combined system mass is 33, tons. Now, if we have some down time, we probably want to bring the coolant temperature down to near freezing, or if possible turn it into an ice slurry.

Unfortunately, that means a radiator operating at an average of about K, with a heat output of 0. If we figure extended radiators are 1 km long and m wide, they can dump heat at a rate of MW, or approximately 8 hours to cool to near freezing. Generating the ice slurry would take another 6 hours or so. Also, unlike high temperature radiators, sunlight heating the radiators will interfere substantially with cooling, so we need to remain edge-on towards the sun.

Back to Sikon :. Let's add an intuitive illustration of the overall picture. That proportionally corresponds to as much firepower per unit mass as a half-kilogram energy pistol firing shots between J and 50 kJ of energy.

Such is equivalent to the energy pistol being able to vaporize a volume of ice between 0. While the whole range is conservative by sci-fi standards, one could take the low end of the range if concerned about the reliability of it being plausible. The comparison is proportional since the sample space warship's weapon masses 20,, times more than the energy pistol.

This is roughly the size of the largest ships I think are provided for in Attack Vector: Tactical. It is about 10x the mass, from my impression, of the largest type DiGleria? Sikon speaks of fleets with thousands of such ships - so they're implicitly dealing with vast galactical-imperial scale polities.

I've gone into this a bit because it makes an interesting point: scale matters. I didn't carefully examine Sikon's analysis, but it gave the impression of being well thought out, and I can imagine that you could indeed get Incredible Firepower For perspective, a kJ vehicle-mounted laser concept is considered by the Department of Defense to be lethal against common rockets, aircraft, and light ground vehicles with little armor.

Yet, at the technological level implied by sci-fi interplanetary or interstellar space war, average firepower of a far larger space warship could be astronomically higher, either in the energy per shot, the number of shots fired per minute, or a combination of both.

Every 0. Propulsion system power could be much greater than electrical power and beam weapons power. For example, the MS Word document from researchers here describes a magnetic compression pulsed fission concept with a magnetic nozzle, in which a vehicle of metric tons initial mass and tons final mass could have GW jet power.

That is between 0. For this distant-future scenario, such is just a probable lower limit. As an initial beam weapons illustration, consider a space warship firing a lethal radiation beam against planetary targets including aircraft. Against humans, on the order of 10 kJ per square meter of some types of radiation would be enough to cause enough exposure for relatively quick mortality , much above the level for slow death.

The end result is a little like the effect of the radiation of a neutron bomb, for which rads or 0. But the radiation wouldn't be neutrons. This is not an ordinary particle-beam weapon concept, being instead a wide beam with particle composition and energies chosen to equal or exceed the atmospheric propagation of penetrating natural cosmic radiation.

As GeV energies are obtained in contemporary research accelerators, the preceding would be attainable by an accelerator within a large space warship. The result is that each shot of 0. If a given intensity level is insufficient, such as firing on a relatively hardened unmanned target, making the beam more narrow by a factor of 10 would increase the intensity by a factor of , and so on.

But wide beams can kill ordinary tanks, aircraft, infantry, etc. The beam is unaffected by weather and sufficiently penetrates the mass shielding of the atmosphere, despite it being 10 metric tons per square meter. Unlike even neutron bombs, the beam would have no blast and just a few degrees heating effect when fired in wide beams, leaving structures unharmed aside from disruption to electronics, yet killing the occupants.

Now, when talking about targeting the ground with a particle beam, it's worth noting that cosmic rays not only attenuate on hitting atmosphere, they scatter. You can't really target a region smaller than about meters radius 31, m 2. One duty cycle from our gun above is GJ 15 Sv at ground level , and we probably don't want to dump coolant on secondary targets, so we likely only fire once or twice.

In practice, the lethality difference between 15 Sv and 30 Sv is negligible in either case, nausea after minutes, a couple days of normal activity, then delirium and death , so one shot is fine.

Lethal radiation beams may also be used against other spaceships, with effectiveness determined in part by their shielding armor thickness. In that case, a quickly-lethal 0. Actually, since enemy vessels can be detected at great range , the warship might not wait but rather open fire on lightly-armored targets at such extreme range that beams hit only by being hundreds of kilometers in diameter or more. The cumulative radiation dose delivered over many shots every minute would add up to enough in time.

One potential countermeasure is mass-shielding or thick armor around vulnerable areas of a ship, like the battle stations for the crew and vulnerable electronics , such as with enough meters of metal to stop practically all of the radiation. Another weapon can be microwaves. Against non-hardened civilian targets, as little as a few joules per square meter or less can be enough if delivered in the right time frame, concentrated into microseconds or less.

Gigantic " EMP " pulsed microwave beams can fry ordinary electronics over up to many square kilometers per shot. EMP beams could be about the opposite of lethal radiation beams, devastating planetary infrastructure without killing any people aside from a few indirect deaths like crashing aircraft.

Against more hardened targets, more focused microwaves in the form of narrow-beam MASERs might physically overheat and destroy. The potential firepower of such a concentrated MASER beam is implied by the many-gigawatt or terawatt-level power generation of a large space warship being equivalent to a number of tons of high-explosive per second.

As implied by what happens to sunlight, light from space doesn't always reach the ground well on cloudy days. Thus, lasers might be an unreliable weapon against planetary targets, unless the basic principle of this could be applied with ultra-intense pulses. However, the situation is different in space against enemy warships.

The shorter wavelength of lasers compared to microwaves allows a more narrow focus at long range. During planetary attack, yet another potential weapons system for space warships is firing non-nuclear mass driver projectiles and missiles to hit air, sea, and ground targets on the planet below, impacting at hypersonic velocities.

Such is for a telephone-pole-shaped projectile of a metric ton mass. That means the reverse is also possible for projectiles with the right mass, dimensions, ablative shield, and trajectory.

Projectiles and missiles fancier than the cheapest unguided shells could use small thrusters to adjust trajectory to home in on a target.

Although sci-fi sensors or even remote-control communications systems might be able to operate through the plasma sheath from atmospheric passage i. Large numbers of nukes may be used in planetary assault. For example, one cheap "brute force" method of dealing with atmospheric fighters trying to avoid shells or missiles might be to have them explode with sub-kiloton to single-kiloton yield.

The equivalent isn't done by terrestrial militaries for reasons like political issues, but those do not necessarily apply so much in a sci-fi planetary assault scenario. Even in the real-world today, nukes do not have to cost more than merely hundreds of thousands of dollars each or less in mass-production, compared to fighters costing orders of magnitude more: tens to hundreds of millions of dollars each.

Fallout from such nukes would tend to be harmful to the planetary defenders and localized regions without making the planet unusable by the invaders. Localized radiation levels shortly after a detonation can be lethal, but such decrease over time.

The radioisotopes emitting the most initial radiation are those with the largest fraction of their atoms decaying per unit time. The rate of radiation emission per unit time from a radioisotope is inversely proportional to half-life, to a degree such that stable elements can be thought of simply as those with infinitely long half- lives. The fallout of a nuclear weapon detonation of low or moderate yield can much elevate radiation levels over a limited number of square kilometers, but it can do very little overall over the half-billion square kilometer total area of a planet like earth.

Historical above-ground nuclear weapon tests in the 20th century amounted to megatons cumulatively, with megatons fission yield I, Annex C. Total collective dosage to the world's population from such past tests corresponds to 7E6 man-Sv, for the UNSCEAR estimate for total exposure in the past plus the result of currently remaining radioisotopes projected up through the year The preceding total over the decades and centuries is less than what is received every year from natural sources of radiation , which is in turn orders of magnitude less than what would make an eventual death from cancer probable.

Of course, from a real-world civilian perspective, any potential increased risk of cancer is undesirable, but, from the perspective of the hypothetical space invaders, the bulk of the planetary surface is not harmed enough for them to necessarily be concerned. For example, even with fission devices, if the orbiting warships are firing quarter-kiloton-yield nuclear shells or missiles against targets like enemy aircraft, it would take on the order of , warheads even just to exceed the limited radiological contamination from the MT fission component of the preceding nuclear tests.

If available, pure-fusion devices would be cleaner. Sci-fi technology allows other possible ordnance, such as biological weapons genetically engineered to have a non-lethal temporary incapacitating effect or infectious nanobots.

Different attackers might use different techniques depending upon their psychology, ethics, objectives, etc. In combat between space warships, the vast firepower attainable from nuclear projectiles or missiles , combined with no particular limit on range, might make them dominate the battlefield. Or they might not, depending upon the effectiveness of missiles versus point defenses , their relative cost, and other factors in a given sci-fi scenario.

With lasers destroying artillery shells becoming possible even now , the point defenses of distant-future space warships are not to be underestimated. As little as a kJ projectile can destroy an ordinary missile. For example, if warship firepower of 0. If firing pellets like a shotgun, such could deliver on average a kJ pellet per square meter within a meter to meter diameter pattern per millisecond, a thousand times as much per second, potentially destroying many different incoming missiles.

Or, to maximize engagement range, firing a whole second at one target could amount to a shotgun pattern 0. Alternatively, comparable firepower to the preceding might also be obtained with another weapons system like a laser array instead.

Against such point defense firepower, ordinary missiles are at a disadvantage against warships. One possibility could be a space missile swarm not carrying sizable nuclear warheads but rather dispersing clouds of kinetic-kill masses , such as billions of grains of sand or the equivalent, too numerous for point defense weapons to hit and vaporize them all.

Point defenses might try to destroy such missiles far enough away for clouds deployed before missile destruction to subsequently miss due to the warship's changing course. Imagine two modern-day soldiers. One is armed with a sniper rifle, while the other is armed with a pistol.

If they face each other in a jungle or in dense fog with visibility not beyond several meters, either one may have a good chance of being the winner. But now imagine them starting a kilometer apart on a featureless flat plane of solid rock with perfect visibility. Then the guy with the sniper rifle wins, as the man with the pistol can not approach close enough to hit before being shot by the sniper.

Since there is typically no effective stealth in space, the situation for warship combat can be like perfect visibility, no horizon, and usually no cover. That makes effective weapons range particularly important. Fire control computers try to predict a target's position based on its velocity and current acceleration, but, at ranges with significant light speed lag , mobility matters much against beam weapons and possibly the missile-deployed kinetic-kill clouds described earlier.

For example, a ship doing 5g of unpredictable acceleration deviates m in 1 sec, 2. One countermeasure may be to fire many shots, but the earlier illustration of a warship firing a huge pattern of , to 10,, kJ shots per second doesn't work well if the target has armor making kJ too little. Armor could make the enemy fire a low rate of concentrated high-energy shots, reducing the chance of any hitting at long range.

Of course, good enough point defenses are also needed, or else the armor would just be penetrated by a missile with a nuclear warhead.

What about space warships fighting planetary anti-space weapons? Typically the planet would be better off having space warships than planet-based weapons. Even if an advanced propulsion concept like nuke-pulse or nuke-saltwater rockets is used instead, having such launched from a planet during a battle would make them relatively easy targets during boost phase.

Craft launched from a planet may tend to be smaller and more limited than space warships. For example, a mass driver sending even just ten tons per hour to orbit could over a decade put almost a million tons up, enough to be potentially the seed of a society processing eventually billions of tons of extraterrestrial material into habitats and ships.

But, in that scenario, billions of tons of spaceships might exist without the planet necessarily being able to launch more than a proportionally minuscule amount in a day.

A planet could have gigawatt to terawatt range beam weapons, but the effective range of such against space warships would tend to be less than vice versa: In a duel at up to light-minutes or greater range with light speed weapons, a space warship fleet will tend to win against a planet, as the immobile planet with zero unpredictable acceleration can be engaged at extreme range.

For example, if technology allows a variant of the lethal radiation beam weapon described earlier to have 0. With thousands of 0. That gives the mobile warships plenty of time to evade any light speed weapons fire from the planet. Such would arrive long after each warship has moved to another location in the vastness of space, perhaps millions of kilometers away from its previous position. If even more firepower is needed, kinetic-kill clouds might be used, i.

Optionally, the columns of fire in the atmosphere created by the preceding might "blind" remaining defenses for critical seconds while missiles with nuclear warheads arrived right behind them. Before inefficiencies and aside from the other mass in nuclear weapons, fissioning plutonium and fusioning lithium-6 deuteride are 17 million megatons and 64 million megatons respectively per million metric tons mass.

Of course, if the goal is to capture the planet with it still inhabitable , the level of firepower used in destroying anti-space weapons from extreme range would need to be limited. Warships could afterwards move closer, into orbit, providing final fire support for an invasion.

I was struck by how it assumed the space ship had amazing beam weapons capable of penetrating the atmosphere, but for some unknown reason ground defenders using that same beam weapon technology simply lose. On rec. They have a stupendous advantage in heat rejection, shielding, and mobility. He seems to assume planetary defenses must be fixed, despite the explicit example of aircraft which can literally jink all week which, of course, spacecraft can't.

Never mind about submarines, ships, or underground weaponry. A habitable-planet surface is about as cluttered an environment as you can find. Other parts of the post also seemed to blow off the problem of detecting targets on a planetary surface. As an aside, at least "guns" reveal themselves when they fire. Assuming you have a suitable tech for lobbing missiles out of a gravity well, a missile engagement is even more in favor of the surface, because once a missile is fired all it leaves behind is its launcher, probably of insignificant value as a target.

Returning to beams, the whole sensor-blinding issue also heavily favors the planet, because finding a passive sensor on a planet surface approaches the level of trying to find a guy with binoculars somewhere on the nearside of the planet. With good enough targeting information transmitted from recon drones through a computerized system, space warships could help kill even individual vehicles or even individual enemy soldiers from orbit when possible.

Such would not be their primary mission, and initially the warships would attack more valuable targets. But afterwards, a warship would still have practically unlimited ammo for its electrically-powered beam weapons running off nuclear reactors. Using a hundred-thousand-ton warship to kill a couple enemy soldiers riding around in a truck might superficially seem wasteful, but there is next to no marginal cost in the preceding scenario.

Consider a warship orbiting at km low-orbit altitude for final fire support. A little like a terrestrial sniper can shoot an enemy from 0.

If there was a single person or handful of people on the warship manually trying to search for targets, aim, and fire the weapons, it would be a slow process. Yet, if there are a large number of robotic recon drones searching for enemy vehicles and soldiers, transmitting their precise coordinates, a computerized fire control system on the warship could shoot thousands of designated targets per hour, continuing for hours or days if necessary.

Given the firepower and capabilities possible with one space warship, imagine what a fleet of thousands of such warships or more could do against a planet. Space warships would initially destroy all targets they could see from space, but, for foreseeable technology, orbital surveillance might not find every last target.

Deploying air and ground versions of robotic recon drones could help give further targeting information. For example, if a golf ball-sized robotic drone with a miniature jet engine flies up to the window of a building and sees enemy soldiers inside, it can transmit a signal causing the warship's computers to fry the area within a meter radius with a lethal radiation beam a fraction of a second later Even in a hard sci-fi scenario, predicting the capabilities of technology that may be centuries or millennia beyond the 21st-century is highly uncertain.

For example, perhaps technology would allow a million tons of raw materials to be quickly and cheaply converted to its mass-equivalence: a billion one-kilogram missiles to be dispersed at low altitude.

Or there could be other weird military technologies. A little like a person from centuries ago couldn't very well predict the capabilities of modern combat, the preceding is mainly just a lower limit on what could be accomplished at the technological level commonly implied by interplanetary and interstellar wars in science fiction.

Adam D. Ruppe had this analysis. It was in a thread at the Stardestroyer BBS. Please note that I have this entire section duplicated below in the ship types section, because it talks about both ship design and ship types, and I couldn't figure out how to split it into two parts.

I don't think there would be a huge variation in the types of warships seen. You'd have the big battleship which would dominate everything it fights, and then maybe smaller ships that could cover more area at once and engage in light combat, but wouldn't stand up to the battleships.

Red called these 'frigates' in his Humanist Inheritance fiction, probably because their role is similar to the ship of the same name from the age of sail, and it is a term I like, so I will use it here. However, note 'cruiser' may also be an applicable moniker for these ships, probably depending on its specific mission rather than its design goal.

I feel these would exist due to economic efficiency rather than speed or range difference like those seen in the real sailing frigates. Let me explain. Many of the arguments against space fighters can actually be used when talking about other capital ship classes as well.

Let's look at what the roles of various naval ship classes basically were, and see if they could have an analog in space. You had corvettes, which were small, maneuverable ships used close to shore. This role doesn't really apply in space. You might argue low orbit around a planet could be seen as a shore, but the problem is combat ranges would be rather large.

If you have a stationary asset in LEO that you want to attack, you could put your battleship arbitrarily far away and attack it at will. If you have a mobile asset in LEO you want to attack, you can still attack it from some distance away, probably around one light second, to avoid too much light speed lag targeting issues and diffraction of your laser beams over the distance.

For comparison, the moon is about one and a half light seconds away from Earth. So, the battleship could be sitting out two thirds the distance to the moon and easily engaging the LEO target with precision and power. Corvettes being there wouldn't be of any help on defense, and the battleship can do their job on offense just as well, and at longer range.

A corvette type ship might be useful to the Coast Guard for police and search and rescue work, but that is an entirely different realm than a warship. The historical usage of the term referred to a small but fast warship, capable of operating on their own, and often assigned to light targets or escort duty. I do see an analog to this role in space. A frigate would be no match for a battleship, however they would be useful in force projection, due to presumably being cheaper to produce and operate, thus more numerous.

I'll be back to this in a moment. And of course, battleships would be the backbone of the war fleet, able to swat down anything that comes at them except other battleships.

If it were economically feasible to build a huge fleet of battleships, I see no reason not to. Let's investigate some of their traditional disadvantages and see if they apply in space. The big one is speed: the huge battleship can take just about anything dished out to it and dish out enough to destroy nearly any other class of ship, but its huge size makes it slow. This isn't so much of a concern in space.

Allow me to elaborate. There are two things in space that are relevant when talking about "speed": delta-v and acceleration. Delta-v is determined by the specific impulse fuel efficiency of the ship's engines and the percentage of the ship's mass that is fuel.

Tonnage of the ship doesn't really matter here: it is a ratio thing. If the specific impulse is the same and the fuel percentage to total mass the same, any size ship will eventually reach the same final speed. Thus, here, if fuel costs are ignored, small ships have no advantage over large ships. And indeed, if you are going on a long trip, the large ship offers other advantages in how many supplies or for war, how many weapons it can carry at no cost to delta-v, again, if the ratio remains constant So the question is how fast can they reach it, which brings me to acceleration.

Acceleration is determined by total engine thrust and the total mass of the ship. At first glance, it seems that the smaller ship would obviously have the advantage here, but there are other factors that need be observed.

One is the structural strength of the materials of which the ship is constructed. This becomes a big problem on insanely huge ships with larger accelerations, since the 'weight' the spaceframe must support goes up faster it cubes than the amount of weight it can handle it squares. Mike talks about this on the main site when he debunks the silliness of giant insects.

However, steel is strong enough that with realistic sizes and accelerations, this should not be an issue before one of the other ones are. One that is a much bigger problem is how much the human crew can handle.

Well trained people in g-suits can handle 9 g's for a short time, but much more than this is a bad thing to just about everyone - their aorta can't handle it. In fact 5 positive g's are enough to cause most people to pass out, as she explains. If the crew is passing out, the ship is in trouble. This problem can be lessened by the use of acceleration couches: someone laying down flat can handle it much better for longer, but even 5 g's laying down is going to be very uncomfortable, and the crew will have a hard time moving their arms.

Extended trips would probably be best done at 1 g so the rocket's acceleration simulates Earth normal gravity, with peak acceleration being no more than g's for humans in the afore mentioned couches if possible. That is probably the most significant limit on acceleration, since it is an upper limit of humans. No matter what technology exists, this cannot be avoided. The third limitation will be based on the technical problem of generating this much thrust for the mass.

This, too, can provide an upper limit, since adding more engines on to a ship will eventually give diminishing returns. The reason for that is the available surface area on the back of the ship where the engine must go increases more slowly than the mass of the ship as it grows. But, for a reasonably sized ship, this should not be a tremendous problem, especially when nuclear propulsion techniques are used, many of which have already been designed and proven feasible in the real world.

Fission nuke pulse propulsion can provide mega-newtons of thrust according to the table on Nyrath's Atomic Rockets website see the row for Project Orion. Three gees is about 30 metres per second squared acceleration. Incidentally, this is the number Sikon used for his demonstrations in the October thread about brick vs needle. I think it a reasonable number for a battleship, so rather than repeat the benefits Building Hms Victory Model Ship Journal of this, I refer you back to that thread and the posts of GrandMasterTerwynn and Sikon on the first page, who discussed it in more depth than I am capable of.

I agree with most of the views Sikon expressed in that thread. You also pointed this out later in your post that these advanced propulsion techniques do not necessarily scale down very well, which may also serve as a lower limit on ship size, which is probably more relevant than the upper limit it causes. You might ask if pushing for a greater peak acceleration would be worth it, and it is not, in my opinion. The reason again goes to the human limitations.

Even if your warship is pulling 10 gees, it most likely won't help against a missile, which can still outperform you.

An acceleration of even 1 g should be enough to throw off enemy targeting at ranges of about one light second. Then, if he fires back with a laser, you have another second to apply more change.

This would be enough to help prevent direct, concentrated hits. Having even five times more acceleration will offer little advantage over this in throwing off targeting or wide spread impact of lasers of particle beams, due to the ranges and the size of your warship, which is certain to measure longer than 50 metres.

For missiles and coilgun projectiles, it matters even less, simply due to the time the enemy fire arrives, you have plenty of time - minutes - to have moved. Long range acceleration would again be limited to around 1 g or less due to the humans, mentioned above. However, even at 1g constant acceleration which would probably not be used due to fuel concerns anyway , an Earth to Mars trip could be measured in mere days.

More offers little advantage there either. Lastly, there may be a question of rotation. A more massive and longer ship would have a greater moment of angular inertia than a smaller ship, thus requiring more torque to change its rate of rotation.

Again, I don't feel this will be a major concern. At the ranges involved, you again have some time to change direction. However, this does pose the problem in quick, random accelerations to throw off enemy targeting.

Going with the 10, metric ton ship, let's assume it has an average density equal to that of water: one tonne per cubic meter. For the shape, I am going to assume a cylinder, about 10 meters in diameter about the same as the Saturn V , with all the mass gathered at points at the end.

The reason of this is to demonstrate a possible upper number for difficulty of rotation moment of inertia , not to actually propose this is what it would look like. Actually determining an optimal realistic shape for such a ship would take much more thought.

Now, we can estimate the moment of inertia, for which, we will assume there are two point masses of tons, each 65 meters away from the center.

Now, let's assume there are maneuvering jets on each end that would fire on opposite sides to rotate the ship. Let's further assume these have thrust about equal to that found on the space shuttle, simply because it is a realistic number that I can find: about 30 kilo-newtons.

Outstanding, now we can determine angular acceleration possible. This is about a meager 10th of a degree per square second. Remember this is acceleration - change in rotation rate.

Once spinning, it would tend to continue spinning. This is also a lower limit: most likely, the thrusters would be more numerous than I assumed, and probably more powerful as well, and the mass probably would be more evenly distributed. But anyway, let's see if it might be good enough. As I said when discussing linear acceleration, you would want some quick randomness to help prevent a concentrated laser beam from focusing on you, and you would want the ability to change your path within a scale of minutes to prevent long range coilgun shells from impacting.

There isn't much you can do about missiles except point defense: a ship cannot hope to outmaneuver them due to limitations of the crew, if nothing else. Some unpredictable linear acceleration should be enough to do these tasks, unless the enemy can get lined up with you, in which case, you will want to change direction to prevent him from using your own acceleration against you, and blasting you head on.

So the concern is can you rotate fast enough to prevent the enemy from lining up with you. So, let's assume the enemy can change direction infinitely fast, and can thrust at 3 g's.

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