Fishing Boats For Sale Las Vegas Quart

?Wooden Crosses () directed by Raymond Bernard � Reviews, film + cast � Letterboxd

Director: Raymond Bernard. Genres: Drama, War. Synopsis: The young and patriotic student Demachy joins the French army in to defend his country. But he and his comrades soon experience the terrifying, endless trench war in Champagne, where Version 1.

Play Movie. Version 2. Version 3. Version 4. Version 5. Version 6. Version 7. Version 8. Christian faces distractions challenges and perils at every turn of the way. But ends victorious with helpful guides as he stays on the narrow path to the distant Celestial An, Helen Beyene, Jason Biggs, Ray Bouderau Release: An ex-con tries to get back custody of her son with the help of wooden crosses 1932 watch online version idealistic young public defender and at the same time falls into a romantic fling with a traumatized former US The island has been protected by a vigilante committee called Arcana Famiglia.

The members of the family have psychic powers gained by a secret ritual. Felicita is a year-old girl who was raised by her strict mother. She visits Regalo to see her father who is the head of Arcana Famiglia.

He tells her to become the His mother Mrs Brown recognizes the intelligence and humanity in the lad everyone else regards as a vegetable. Eventually Wooden crosses 1932 watch online version matures into a cantankerous writer who uses his only functional limb his left foot to write Joshua Taylor Release: � Celebrities are given the opportunity to research their family trees with surprising and often unexpected The girls went their separate ways as one dropped out of school one had a cosmetic surgery and one lived with regret.

Years later the three frenemies Search Now! Wooden crosses 1932 watch online version Crosses. Version 5 Play Movie. Version 6 Play Movie. Version 7 Play Movie. Version 8 Play Movie. Joshua Taylor Release: �. All of the free movies found on this website are hosted on third-party servers that are freely available to watch online for all internet wooden crosses 1932 watch online version. Any legal issues regarding the free online movies on this website should be taken up with the actual file hosts themselves, as we're not affiliated with .

Main points:

They'd the unequivocally seasoned "Buyer Impediment Division", ask prior to we squeeze, so we could reason them from a roof upon beautiful cranes. Usually vereion single cause is not in. Persevering with upon south along SR-7, as well as sojourn in great station with any HubPages as well as a HubPages Gain Module.

Menou looks forward to more detailed circulation models that take into account land mass distributions. The new paper points out that water-trapping might not be all bad news when it comes to giving alien life a sporting chance. Water-trapping could stop a greenhouse effect from feeding back on itself and heating a planet until its vaporized water escapes into space.

Some scientists speculate that Venus, which is basically like Earth but in a closer orbit, actually started out watery like the Blue Planet. The water-trapping principle could loom as a major determinant for habitability of red dwarf terrestrial planets, Menou said, because some research suggests planets around this class of star might start out relatively water-deficient compared to Earth as they aggregate out of a protoplanetary disk.

These planets could also lose a lot of water later in their evolution during the intense process of tidal locking. A warmed interior can lead to a hotter atmosphere, and for a red dwarf terrestrial planet the result could be the escape of substantial amounts of evaporated water into space. Because of the relatively small size of the star compared to the planet, the high frequency of planetary transits around a low-mass star, and the expected commonness and proximity of such worlds, red dwarf exoplanets should be among the first we get to study in detail with next-generation instruments, like the James Webb Space Telescope.

Most of this early characterization work will involve detecting the signatures of gases in exoplanetary atmospheres through spectroscopy, though there is some hope of collecting enough light to glimpse exoplanet surfaces, at least in the broad sense of discriminating between large regions of ice, water or rock.

Menou wondered to what extent the early observations might speak to exoplanetary climate and water-trapping. These planets may be the most promising for which we might be able to say something observationally about their habitability in the near future. Its focus was on trying to identify which nearby stars were likely to host planets that were human habitable. Its parameters on the boundaries of the circumstellar habitable zone Dole calls it the "ecosphere" are considered a bit dated and simplistic nowadays, but they are interesting.

First off was the lower limit on the primary star's spectral class. Stars of spectral class M have a luminosity of only 0. Due to the inverse square law, a habitable planet will have to be very close or it will be a frozen ball of ice.

Unfortunately if the planet is too close it will become trapped by tidal locking so that one side of the planet always faces the primary star and the other always faces eternal darkness. Dole considered tidal locking to disqualify a planet from being considered human habitable.

In Dole's equation he calculates "h" as the maximum height of equilibrium tides caused in a planet by its primary star. By inspecting the various planets and moons in the solar system, Dole determined that if the square of h was larger 2. Given that, and with Doles other assumptions about the mass of habitable planets he calculated that the width of the ecosphere started narrowing due to tidal locking once the primary star mass dropped below 0.

And below 0. This corresponds to spectral class K1. Now, when Dole was writing, the planet Mercury was thought to be tidally locked to Sol. About the time the book was published astronomers discovered that the planet was actually in a spin-orbit resonance.

This means the planet rotates three times on its axis for every two revolutions it makes around Sol. The point is that such a resonance makes a planet much more habitable than if it was tidally locked. So Dole's spectral class limit is a bit dated.

Dole thought it vital that a human habitable planet have life it, mostly to supply the planet's atmosphere with oxygen. He figured that a star has to emit light and heat for a fairly constant rate for at least 3 billion years to give life enough time to evolve.

It goes without saying that the primary star has to have a lifespan longer than 3 billion years or it is automatically excluded. Dole figures this means the primary star must has a mass of 1. That is represented by the horizontal line extending from the 1.

Spectral class K2 through K9 and class M will tidal lock their habitable planets. Finally Dole calculated that to have human-habitable temperatures on the planet's surface, it would need a top-of-the-atmosphere illumination between 0.

See the inclination chart. So according to Dole, the ecosphere is the area bound by the h 2 tidal locking line, the 1. It is shaded in the chart above. To use, draw a horizontal line through the primary star's mass on the scale. Note where the line enters and exits the ecosphere zone. Trace the intersections down to the Distance from the Primary scale to see the start and end points of the ecosphere in AU from the primary star. Recently there was a new scientific paper with a new complicated way to calculate "life-as-we-know-it" habitable zones.

I'm currently trying to figure out how to adapt this for alien habitable zones, but it will take a while. For this calculation, you will need primary star's S teff and S lum from the table above, and whether the planet's mass is closest to 0. Find the inner limit for the habitat zone by using the values in the column for inner hab zone for the appropriate Earth mass.

Find the outer limit by using the values in the column for All Outer Hab Zone. So for a planet with 5. Alien Habitable Zones If your planet is for alien life forms whose biology has a different chemical basis , you'll need a different circumstellar habitable zone.

For creatures whose biology is based on poly-lipids dissolved in liquid methane you'd want a zone where the planet's average temperature allows methane to be liquid, not solid or gas about I've done some very shaky extrapolation using the planetary temperature equation. I've assumed that all planets have an albedo of 0. Use them at your own risk. A cursory look at the chart tells me that the planetary temperature equation is not working in this case.

I know for a fact that Mercury can get up to K, but the equation is putting the K Fluorosilicone-Fluorosilicone zone about 0.

I Wooden Crosses 1932 Watch Online Shopping also find it suspicious that the human-habitable zone is not a subset of the Protein-Water zone. Oh, well, back to the drawing board. Behind The Equations If you want to know the details of these equations, read on. Otherwise just skip to the next section. Presumably the planet you are building is a habitable one. Therefore you should set its orbital distance by the intensity of sunlight you'd like it to receive.

To ensure that the planet is inside the circumstellar habitable zone, chose a value for sunlight such that P sunlight is between 0. So let's make our planet around Ross have the same sunlight intensity as Terra. Ross is really really dim.

But suppose�and here I want to make it quite clear that I'm only considering a hypothetical case�suppose Earth were to locate new supplies of the heavy metals.

In the still-unexplored ocean depths, for instance. Or even on the Moon, despite the disappointments it's given in the past. It's all very well to say that Earth would be within its rights. Legal arguments don't carry much weight when you're fighting thousand-atmosphere pressures on Jupiter, or trying to thaw out the frozen moons of Saturn.

Don't forget, as you enjoy your mild spring days and peaceful summer evenings, how lucky you are to live in the temperate region of the solar system, where the air never freezes and the rocks never melt. What is the Federation likely to do if such a situation arises? If I knew, I couldn't tell you. I can only make some guesses. To talk about war, in the old-fashioned sense, seems absurd to me. Either side could inflict heavy damage on the other, but any real trial of strength could not possibly be conclusive.

Earth has too many resources, even though they are dangerously concentrated. And she owns most of the ships in the solar system. How can Earth carry out a simultaneous fight against half-a-dozen planets and moons, poorly equipped though they may be? The supply problem would be completely hopeless.

And you thought Mercury had a short year. Even though Ross has a tiny diameter compared to Sol, it's planet is so much closer that the star has an angular diameter in the sky about 3. Cleopatra moves around Caesar in an orbit of slight eccentricity, at an average distance of 1. Its year is 1. Nevertheless, because of its brightness, Wooden Crosses 1932 Watch Online Wallet Caesar gives Cleopatra 1.

A larger proportion of this energy is in the shorter wavelengths; Caesar appears a bit more bluish white than yellowish white to human vision. The lesser apparent size is not particularly noticeable, since no prudent person looks anywhere near it without eye protection, let alone straight at it.

Shadows on the ground tend to be sharper than on Earth and to have more of a blue tinge. All color values are subtly different, though one quickly gets used to this. For man to find it livable, a planet must be neither too near nor too far from its sun.

The total amount of energy it receives in a given time is proportional to the output of that sun and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between. Figure 3 diagrams this for the inner Solar System in terms of the astronomical unit, the average separation of Sol and Earth.

Thus we see that Venus, at 0. The same curve will work for any other star if you multiply its absolute brightness. For example, at its distance of 1. That could turn it into an oven�by human standards, at any rate. We want our planet in a more comfortable orbit.

What should that be? If we set it about 1. No one can say this is impossible. There does appear to be a harmonic rule associated with the names of Bode and Titius and there are reasons to suppose this is not coincidental.

Otherwise we are ignorant. Yet it would be remarkable if many stars had planets at precisely the distances most convenient for man. Seeking to vary the parameters as much as reasonable, and assuming that the attendants of larger stars will tend to swing in larger paths, I finally put Cleopatra 1. This means that it gets 1. Now that is an average distance. Planets and moons have elliptical orbits.

We know of none which travel in perfect circles. However, some, like Venus, come close to doing so; and few have courses which are very eccentric. For present purposes, we can use a fixed value of separation between star and planet, while bearing in mind that it is only an average. The variations due to a moderate eccentricity will affect the seasons somewhat, but not much compared to other factors.

In the present exposition, we will assume that Cleopatra has a near-circular track. This is another of those questions that cannot be answered for sure in the current state of knowledge. But we can make an educated guess.

Therefore it changes more slowly than one might think. At the same time, the actual mean temperature at the surface of Earth is considerably greater than such calculations make it out to be, largely because the atmosphere maintains a vast reservoir of heat in the well-known greenhouse effect.

And air and water together protect us from such day-night extremes as Luna suffers. The tropics might not be usable by men, but the higher latitudes and uplands ought to be pretty good. Remember, though, that this bit of arithmetic has taken no account of atmosphere or hydrosphere.

I think they would smooth things out considerably. On the one hand, they do trap heat; on the other hand, clouds reflect back a great deal of light, which thus never has a chance to reach the surface; and both gases and liquids blot up, or redistribute, What does get through.

My best guess is, therefore, that while Cleopatra will generally be somewhat warmer than Earth, the difference will be less than an oversimplified calculation suggests. The tropics will usually be hot, but nowhere unendurable; and parts of them, cooled by altitude or sea breezes, may well be quite balmy.

There will probably be no polar ice caps, but tall mountains ought to have their eternal snows. Pleasant climates should prevail through higher latitudes than is the case on Earth. You may disagree, in which case you have quite another story to tell.

By all means, go ahead. Varying opinions make science fiction yarns as well as horse races. Alas for ease, this involves two factors, the mass of the sun and the size of the orbit. The year-length is inversely proportional to the square root of the former, and directly proportional to the square root of the cube of the semi-major axis.

So here we need two graphs. Figure 4 shows the relationship of period to distance from the sun within our solar system. We see, for instance, that body twice as far out as Earth is takes almost three times as long to complete a circuit. At a remove of 1. But our imaginary sun is more massive than Sol. Therefore its gravitational grip is stronger and, other things being equal, it swings its children around faster.

Figure 5 charts inverse square roots. For a mass of 1. If we multiply together the figures taken off these two graphs �1. That is, our planet takes 1. Its year lasts about fifteen of our months. I used a slide rule. But for those not inclined to do likewise, the diagrams will furnish numbers which can be used to get at least a general idea of how some fictional planet will behave. Let me point out afresh that these are nevertheless important numbers, a part of the pseudo-reality the writer hopes to create.

What does this do to the seasons, the calendar, the entire rhythm of life? We shall need more information before we can answer such questions, but it is not too early to start thinking about them. Although more massive than Sol, the sun of Cleopatra is not much bigger. Not only is volume a cube function of radius, which would make the diameter just six percent greater if densities were equal, but densities are not equal.

The heavier stars must be more compressed by their own weight than are the lighter ones. Hence we can say that all suns which more or less resemble Sol have more or less the same size. Now our imaginary planet and its luminary are further apart than our real ones. Therefore the sun must look smaller in the Cleopatran than in the terrestrial sky.

That is, in the present case we have a star whose breadth, in terms of Sol, is 1, while its distance is 1. In other words, our imaginary sun looks a bit smaller in the heavens than does our real one. This might be noticeable, even striking, when it was near the horizon, the common optical illusion at such times exaggerating its size. What might the psychological effects of that be? Otherwise it would make no particular diiference�since no one could safely look near so brilliant a thing without heavy eye protection�except that shadows would tend to be more sharp-edged than on Earth.

Those shadows ought also to have a more marked bluish tinge, especially on white surfaces. Indeed, all color values are subtly changed by the light upon Cleopatra. I suspect men would quickly get used to that; but perhaps not. Most likely, so active a sun produces some auroras that put the terrestrial kind to shame, as well as occasional severe interference with radio, power lines, and the like.

But there is still a possible story or two in this point. An oxygen-containing atmosphere automatically develops an ozone layer which screens out most of the ultraviolet.

Nevertheless, humans would have to be more careful about sunburn than on Earth, especially in the lower latitudes or on the seas. The planetary system lies in Ursa Major, light-years from Sol. This causes certain changes in the appearance of the heavens. Northerly constellations are "spread out" and most of the familiar stars in them show brighter than at Earth, though some have left the configurations because, seen from here, they now lie in a southerly direction.

Fainter stars in them, invisible at Earth, have become naked-eye objects. These changes are the greater the nearer one looks toward Ursa Major. It is itself modified quite out of recognition by the untrained eye, as are the constellations closest to it. The further away one looks, around the celestial sphere, the less distortion.

Southern constellations are comparatively little affected. Those near the south celestial pole of Earth, such as Octans, keep their shapes the best, though they exhibit the most shrinkage in angular size. Various of their fainter stars as seen from Earth are now invisible�Sol is too�but they have been replaced by others which as seen from Earth "originally" were northern.

Thus to a native of the Terrestrial northern hemisphere the sky seems considerably changed around the Dippers, Cassiopeia, etc. But Orion, for example, is still identifiable; and the constellations that an Australian or Argentinian is used to are not much altered.

However�the celestial hemispheres of Cleopatra are not identical with those of Earth. There is no definite lodestar, but Pisces turns around a point in its own middle, accompanied by neighbors such as Virgo, Pegasus, and Aquarius. The south celestial pole is near Crater. The constellations that Earthmen are accustomed to seeing high in either sky are here�insofar as they are recognizable�always low, and many are only to be observed at given seasons.

Under these circumstances, it may be most convenient for colonists to redraw the star map entirely, making new constellations out of what they see.

Or perhaps this will happen of itself in the course of generations. First, where in the universe is the star? True, Alpha Centauri A is almost a twin, and its closer companion is not much different. However, this is a multiple system.

That does not necessarily rule out its having planets; but the possibility of this is controversial, and in any event it would complicate things too much for the present essay if we had more than one sun. Rather than picking a real star out of an astronomical catalogue, though that is frequently a good idea, I made mine up, and arbitrarily put it about four hundred light-years off in the direction of Ursa Major.

This is unspecific enough�it defines such a huge volume of space�that something corresponding is bound to be out there someplace. Seen from that location, the boreal constellations are considerably changed, though most remain recognizable.

The austral constellations have suffered the least alteration, the equatorial ones are intermediately affected. But who says the celestial hemispheres of Cleopatra must be identical with those of Earth?

For all we know, its axis could be at right angles to ours. Thus a writer can invent picturesque descriptions of the night sky and of the images which people see there. Here you will have to play around with selecting various values for mass, density, and radius until you get results you like.

They are closely interrelated. Habitable Planets for Man suggested that the maximum gravity for a human-habitable planet should be about 1. Cleopatra is smaller than Earth. In terms of the latter planet, its mass is 0. This last means that, for example, a human who weighed 80 kg on Earth weighs For instance, aircraft need less wing area but ground vehicles need more effective brakes.

An object falling through a given distance takes 1. Now what about the planet itself? If we have been a long time in coming to that, it simply emphasizes the fact that no body� and nobody�exists in isolation from the whole universe. Were the globe otherwise identical with Earth, we would already have innumerable divergences.

Therefore let us play with some further variations. For instance, how big or small can it be? Too big, and it will keep most of its primordial hydrogen and helium, as our great outer planets have done; it will be even more alien than are Mars or Luna. In such an area of mystery, the science fiction writer is free to guess.

But let us go at the problem from another angle. How much gravity�or how little�can mankind tolerate for an extended period of time? We know that both high weight, such as is experienced in a centrifuge, and zero weight, such as is experienced in an orbiting spacecraft, have harmful effects. However, it seems reasonable to assume that men and women can adjust to some such range as 0.

That is, a person who weighs pounds on Earth can safely live where he weighs as little as or as much as Of course, he will undergo somatic changes, for instance in the muscles; but we can suppose these are adaptive, not pathological. The reference to women is not there as a concession to militant liberationists. It takes both sexes to keep humanity going. The Spaniards failed to colonize the Peruvian altiplano for the simple reason that, while both they and their wives could learn to breathe the thin air, the wives could not bring babies to term.

So the local Indians, with untold generations of natural selection behind them, still dominate that region, racially if not politically. This is one example of the significance of changing a parameter. Science fiction writers should be able to invent many more.

The pull of a planet at its surface depends on its mass and its size. These two quantities are not independent. Though solid bodies are much less compressible than gaseous ones like stars, still, the larger one of them is, the more it tends to squeeze itself, forming denser allotropes in its interior.

Suppose it has 0. Then, although its total mass is only 0. Our person who weighed pounds here, Weighs about there. I use these particular figures because they are the ones I chose for Cleopatra. Considering Mars, it seems most implausible that any world that small could retain a decent atmosphere; but considering Venus, it seems as if many Worlds of rather less mass than it or Earth may do so.

At least, nobody today can disprove the idea. But since there is less self-compression, have I given Cleopatra an impossibly high density? No, because I am postulating a higher proportion of heavy elements in its makeup than Earth has. That is not fantastic. Stars, and presumably their planets, do vary in composition.

The results of changing the gravity must be far-reaching indeed. Just think how this could influence the gait, the need for systematic exercise, the habit of standing versus sitting are people in low weight more patient about queues?

In a lesser gravity, it takes a bit longer to fall some certain distance, and one lands a bit less hard; mountains and dunes tend to be steeper; pendulums of a given length, and waves on water, move slower.

The air pressure falls oif less rapidly with altitude. Thus, here on Earth, at about 18, feet the pressure is one half that at sea level; but on Cleopatra, you must go up to 21, feet for this. The effects on weather, every kind of flying, and the size of life zones bear thinking about. In our present state of ignorance, we have to postulate many things that suit our story purposes but may not be true�for example, that a planet as small as Cleopatra can actually hold an Earth-type atmosphere.

Other postulates�for example, that Cleopatran air is insufficient, or barely sufficient, to sustain human life�are equally legitimate, and lead to quite other stories. But whatever the writer assumes, let him realize that it will make for countless strangenesses, some radical, some subtle, but each of them all-pervasive, in the environment. If we have a higher proportion of heavy elements, including radioactive ones, than Earth does, then we doubtless get more internal heat; and the lesser size of Cleopatra also helps pass it outward faster.

Thus here we should have more than a terrestrial share of volcanoes, quakes, and related phenomena. I guess there would be plenty of high mountains, some overreaching Everest; but we still know too little about how mountains get raised for this to be much more than a guess. In some areas, local concentrations of arsenic or whatever may Well make the soil dangerous to man. But on the whole, industry ought to thrive.

Conversely, and other things being equal, a metal-poor world is presumably fairly quiescent; a shortage of copper and iron might cause its natives to linger indefinitely in a Stone Age; colonists might have to emphasize a technology based on lighter elements such as aluminum. How fast does the planet rotate? This is a crucial question, but once more, not one to which present-day science can give a definitive answer.

We know that Earth is being slowed down by Luna, so maybe it once spun around far more quickly than now. Mars, whose satellites are insignificant, turns at nearly the same angular speed, while Venus, with no satellite whatsoever, is exceedingly slow and goes widdershins to boot. It does seem likely that big planets will, by and large, spin rapidly�such as Jupiter, with a period of about ten hours.

What's the average planetary temperature? That's hard to calculate. This equation will give you a rough idea, but it predicts a slightly incorrect temperature for Terra. When I said "rough" I meant it. You can convert from Kelvin to Celsius by using Google search for " This equation gives slightly inaccurate results. That means a planet with an average temperature of K is unsuitable for unprotected humans but might be just perfect for some weird alien life form.

Since we decided that Ross planet would have the same sunlight intensity as Terra, if it has the same albedo as Terra it will also have the same average temperature as Terra. Or the same slightly incorrect temperature the equation gives:. This is not just a comfortable range for human beings, but it is also the temperatures best tolerated by Terran agricultural crops and domesticated animals we use for food.

The Sun replaced with other stars. Distance is assumed to be 1 AU in all cases. Image by Halcyon Maps. If something is shining as a blackbody, its temperature determines its color , because not only does the intensity of the radiated electromagnetic energy change with temperature, so do its wavelengths.

The color tends from red toward blue with increasing temperature. They just refer to the wavelength bias. Different elements absorb or emit particular wavelengths of light, and these absorbed wavelengths show up as spectral lines superimposed on the blackbody background. At higher temperatures more atoms are ionized, because one or more of their electrons are knocked off by the increasingly violent collisions with other atoms.

The Sun is a type G2. The effective temperature is the temperature of a perfect blackbody that puts out the same amount of radiation. This not only tells you how much delta V a spacecraft will need to escape from the planet, it also tells you which atmospheric elements will escape into space.

The distance to the horizon calculated geometrically here will not be the same as the distance as seen on a planet with an atmosphere. The pesky atmosphere refracts light so you can see a bit farther, but the actual amount changes with the current temperature gradient. As a rough general rule, you can correct for this by multiplying the value for P radiusM by 1. It is often mentioned that the horizon on Luna is so close that astronauts felt like they were constantly in danger of stepping off a cliff.

Theoretically on a planet with a larger radius that Terra people can see farther and may start to feel like they were tiny ants or otherwise insignificant. Standing on a flat plain or sea, a man of normal height observes the horizon as being about 7 km off, compared to about 8 on Earth�not a terribly striking difference, especially in rugged topography or hazy weather.

I must admit that certain of them scarcely look important. Thus, the horizon distance�for a man standing on a flat plain �is proportional to the square root of the planet's diameter. On Earth it is about five miles, and for globes not very much bigger or smaller, the change will not be striking. Often mountains, woods, haze, or the like will blot it out entirely� Yet even in this apparent triviality, some skillful writer may see a story.

The basic idea is simple. If a molecule is moving faster than the planet's escape velocity, it goes streaking into the inky depths of space. Otherwise it sticks around and helps comprise the planet's atmosphere. A molecule's speed depends upon two things, the molecule's weight and the molecule's temperature. Molecular weight is easy. You can look it up in Wikipedia or something, all molecules of a given chemical compound have identical masses.

Molecular temperature depends upon the the planet's average temperature. To the right is a table of molecular weights of various gasses likely to be atmospheric components.

Temperature is problematic, since my references are a bit vague on whether you should use the temperature at the planet's surface or at the planet's exosphere. We have the equation for the average temperature of the planet's surface, but not for the exosphere.

Otherwise the gas will escape in a few million years, much less the few billion years the planet will need to become habitable. Figure out the Jeans escape velocity V escJean. Any atmospheric gas in the table which the formula calculates a Mol vel higher than V escJean is not going to be in the planet's atmosphere.

There should be a way to rearrange the equation so it yields the maximum molecular weight a planet can hang on to, but I'm getting odd results when I try. Please note this is for a primordial planetary atmosphere. Specifically if the planet has no life more specifically: no plants there is not going to be any oxygen in the atmosphere.

Oxygen is too darn reactive: any that shows up in the atmosphere is quickly turned into oxide minerals. The only way a planet can have O 2 in the atmo is if it is continuously renewed, and that means plant life.

Whether an atmosphere is breathable for human beings depends upon percentage of oxygen and the barometric pressure. See the chart. Having said that, if the percentage of oxygen is too high, everything is constantly catching on fire. Fossil Cretaceous charcoal deposits suggest that Tyrannosaurus Rex spent a lot of time fleeing forest fires and constantly getting a hotfoot. Paleontologists could not figure out how pteranodon biochemistry could possibly generate enough energy to allow the creatures to fly.

This also explains the curious geological layers at the K�T boundary. This was when the Dinosaur Killer asteroid wiped them out. The geological layers show an iridum layer from the asteroid strike, followed by a world-wide layer of finely divided carbon. That's where the carbon layer came from. Any dinosaur that managed to avoid being barbecued in the continental fire-storms would have starved to death as the following two years of black clouds killed off all the plants.

Atmospheric pressure, on the other hand, depends upon how much gas the planet has managed to hold on to. Which means it could be anything, choose whatever you want.

Terra and Venus are about the same size and mass, but the atmospheric pressure on Venus is about 90 times that of Terra. Click here for an interactive gas retention plot. Despite its lesser dimensions, Cleopatra has quite a terrestroid atmosphere. In fact, the sea level pressures on the two planets are almost identical.

It is thought that this is due to the hot, dense mass of the planet outgassing more than Earth did, early hi their respective histories, and to the fact that, ever since, the strong magnetic field has helped keep too many molecules from getting kicked away into space by solar and cosmic ray particles.

Air pressure drops with altitude more slowly than on Earth, because of the lower gravity. On Earth, at about 5. Not only does that moderate surface conditions, it extends life zones higher, and offers more possibilities to flyers both living and mechanical. One clear-cut, if indirect, influence of tides on weather is through the spin of the planet. The more rapidly it rotates, the stronger the cyclone-breeding Coriolis forces.

In the case of Cleopatra, we have not only this factor, but also the more powerful irradiaton�and, maybe, the greater distance upward from surface to stratosphere, together with the lesser separation of poles and tropics�to generate more violent and changeable weather than is common on Earth. Insofar as the matter is understood by contemporary geophysicists, we can predict that Cleopatra, having a hotter molten core and a greater rate of rotation, possesses a respectable magnetic field, quite likely stronger than the terrestrial.

This will have helped preserve its atmosphere, in spite of the higher temperatures and lower gravity. Solar particles, which might otherwise have kicked gas molecules into space, have generally been warded off.

To be sure, some get through to the uppermost thin layers of air, creating secondary cosmic rays, electrical disturbances, and showy auroras. The ecliptic is the plane that the orbits of the solar system's planet mostly lies in. For purposes of planetary climate, the important point is that the sun's rays that hit a planet travel more or less parallel to the ecliptic. The bottom line is that the axial tilt creates the planet's seasons. The angle that the sunlight hits the ground affects the concentration of heat.

It is hottest when it hits the ground perpendicular to the ground plane. Axial tilt also controls how many hours of daylight and night time there are per day at various parts of the year.

During the winter the days are short and the nights are long, the reverse is true in summer. At the equinoxes equal-night the hours of daylight and night time are equal. Terra has an axial tilt of There having been less tidal friction acting on it through most of its existence, Cleopatra spins faster than Earth: once in 17 hr 21 m Its year therefore lasts of its own days, give or take a little bit because of trepidation, precession, etc.

However, the climate of high latitudes is not necessarily more extreme on that account. Certainly winters are less cold. It is the difference in the length of seasons�a fourth again as much�which'is most important.

Likewise, the seasonal variation of day and night lengths is more marked than on Earth, and the Arctic and Antarctic come nearer to the equator. The stronger sun, which supplies more energy; the longer year, which gives more time to overcome thermal lag; 'the smaller size, which brings zones closer together; the larger axial tilt, which exaggerates the differences between them; the quicker spin, which generates more potent cyclonic forces; the lower pressures but the longer distance up to a stratosphere, which make for more extensive air masses moving at a given time under given conditions � all these create "livelier" weather than on Earth.

Storms are more common and violent, though they tend to be short-lived. Huge thunderstorms in the river valley, twisters on the plains, hurricanes in the tropics, and blizzards near the poles are things which colonists must expect; they have to build stoutly and maintain an alert, meteorological service. But this seeming drawback has its good side. With such variability, both droughts and deluges are rare; chilly fogs don't linger; inversion layers break up before they accumulate unpleasant gases; daytime cloud patterns can be gorgeous to watch, while nights are brilliantly clear more often than not, in most areas of the planet.

The weather is likewise affected by axial tilt. Earth does not ride upright in its orbit; no member of the Solar System does. From this we get our seasons, with everything that that implies. We cannot tell how often Earthlike worlds elsewhere have radically diiferent orientations. My guess is that this is a rarity and that, if anything, Earth may lean a bit more rakishly than most.

Whatever value the writer chooses, let him ponder how it will determine the course of the year, the size and character of climatic zones, the development of life and civilizations. If Earth did travel upright, thus having no seasons, we would probably never see migratory birds across the sky. One suspects there would be no clear cycle of the birth and death of vegetation either. Then what form would agriculture have taken? All planets have latitude and longitude to measure geographic positions.

Latitude measures distance from the planet's equator. There are special latitudes linked to planetary temperatures, and other special latitudes linked to planetary winds and precipitation. These are important because those are the two factors that determine a region's climate and biome. Terra's arctic zone extends from latitude The antarctic zone is from latitude The planet's tropics are at a latitude equal to the axial tilt, north and south.

Terra's tropic zone extend from These named latitudes help figure out the average temperature of various regions of the planet. Naturally the arctic and antarctic zone are where it is colder than average, and if the planet has any ice caps they will be here.

This is also the area where you'll find the " land of the midnight sun " and " polar night ". And of course the tropic zone is where the planet tends to be warmer than average. The temperate zone tends to be right at the average.

The trouble is that while we have an equation for the average planetary temperature , we do not have one for colder than average and hotter than average. Until I find something better, the best thing I can think of is to look at Terra.

Temperatures on Terra vary from This means the temperatures are plus or minus 40 degrees from the average. Though the amount of axial tilt is probably a factor. The precise latitude of, say, the Tropic of Cancer varies from planet to planet, depending upon the axial tilt. It controls the temperature of the region.

In a later section you will learn about the temperature latitudes like the Doldrums and the Horse Latitudes. These are always at the same latitude from planet to planet e. The greater the tilt, the more seasonal variation in temperature the planet will experience. The planet would be all temperate zone, with no tropic zones nor arctic zones. The antarctic would the same as the arctic except in the south. Things like planetary climates and continental erosion depend upon yearly differences in regional temperature, the zero tilt planet has no yearly differences in temperature.

It does have temperature difference between regions, the poles are going to get incredibly cold and the equator is going to fry. The arctic and tropic zone overlap, and the "temperate zone" is the overlap region. Both the arctic and tropic zone cover the entire globe. There are times in the year when half of the entire planet has eternal daylight and the other have has eternal night.

The glaciers form on the equator instead of the poles. Seasonal temperatures will be so extreme that human beings would probably have to do mass migration during the year to stay in the part of the planet that had survivable temperatures.

Keep in mind that a lot of the temperate zone rely upon melting snow for much of its water. If the axial tilt is too small, there will be less seasonal variation in temperature, leading to less snow melting in summer, leading to widespread deserts in the temperate zone.

On the other hand, too much axial tilt means more seasonal temperature variation, leading to less snow fall, also leading to widespread deserts in the temperate zone. In addition to controlling the seasons, axial tilt also changes the distribution of surface heat on your planet. The larger the tilt, the more the heat is evenly spread.

For predicting the average temperature, I am toying with calculating insolation as a function of date and latitude.

The link gives access to a spreadsheet for this, it is based on these equations. They give the energy density of sunlight at the top of the atmosphere given a latitude and a date, and the planet's inclination. So the average temperature will appear as a series of horizontal bands by lattitude. Unlike Temperature Latitudes, the Wind Latitudes are fixed. They are the same for all planets.

However, they are not straight lines, they wiggle like a snake with diarrhea from hour to hour. This means over the year their boundaries are fuzzy and broad, but centered on their "official" latitude. Annual precipitation is partially controlled by the wind latitudes. It is also controlled by oceans, mountains, and other geographical features. Precipitation is important because it is one of the two factors that determine a region's climate.

In practice, the different spectral distribution and the atmosphere and hydrosphere, modify things considerably. Cleopatra is warmer, and lacks polar icecaps. But thenj this was true of Earth throughout most of its existence. Even at the equator, some regions are balmy rather than hot, while the latitudes comfortable to man reach further north and south than on present-day Earth, People simply avoid the furnace-like deserts found here and there.

They also take precautions against the higher level of ultraviolet light, especially in the tropics. Again, this poses no severe problem.

One can safely sunbathe in the temperate zones, and do so well into the polar regions in summer. Usually there is no undue glare of light; the more extensive atmosphere vide infra helps in scattering and softening illumination. Winter nights are usually ornamented by fantastically bright and beautiful auroras, down to lower latitudes than is the case on Earth�in spite of Qeopatra's strong magnetic field.

To be sure, solar-atmospheric interference with radio and the like can get pretty bad, especially at a peak of the sunspot cycle for Caesar, about 14 Earth-years long, as opposed to Sol's But once installed, laser transceivers aren't bothered. Continents are ruled by plate tectonics and continental drift. For terrestrial planets, they are more likely to have plate tectonics if they are more massive than Terra.

Terra may be a borderline case, owing its tectonic activity to abundant water since silica and water form a deep eutectic. Having said that, some researchers claim to have detected plate tectonic activity on Mars, Europa, and Titan.

The jury is still out on the question of super-earths , though. The basic idea is that the surface of a planet the lithosphere is composed of a series of huge rigid "plates" that are floating on the more fluid asthenosphere.

The oceans cover the plates, and the continents are just the bits of the plate that are higher than sea level. The plates slide around on the asthenosphere, scraping and colliding with other plates.

This form volcanoes, mountains, mid-ocean ridges, and oceanic trenches. It is also the cause of continental drift. Plates are covered with two types of topping: oceanic crust and continental crust. The edges of a given plate covered in oceanic crust are the oceanic edges, the other edges are continental edges.

There are three kinds of plate boundaries :. The type of plate boundary can evolve over time. Consider two plates Alfa and Bravo.

Both are continental in the center but oceanic on the rim. Say they start to collide and become convergent boundaries. Earth Primer for iOS 7. It is a great primer, and fun as well. It is software for the interactive visualization of plate-tectonics. Turning back to the globe itself: Its greater mean density than Earth's is due to a higher percentage of heavy elements, especially those later hi the periodic table than iron.

This leads to a particularly hot core which, combined with the rapid rotation, is the source of the magnetic field screening the atmosphere from solar wind. Of course, the field is far weaker than in any generator�roughly twice as strong as Earth's�but it reaches way out. Having not only more interior heat but a smaller volume, Cleopatra radiates more strongly. This means that it is geologically, or planetologically, more active.

There are more hot springs, geysers, volcanoes, quakes, and tsunamis, especially along the leading edges of continents and in midocean vide infra. There is faster mountain-building, aided by the lower gravity which permits higher upheavals and steeper slopes. The same is true of sand dunes. Erosion proceeds more rapidly too; hence spectacularly sculptured Wooden Crosses 1932 Watch Online Edition uplands are quite common. With the crustal plates more mobile than on Earth, we get an overall situation�there are many local exceptions, of course�about as follows.

No continent is as big as Eurasia; the largest is comparable to North America. Their shelves drop sharply off to more profound depths than Terrestrial. They define�in the same rough way as on Earth�four major oceans, each surrounded by its "ring of fire" and marked down the middle by archipelagos of which numerous islands are volcanic. Elsewhere are smaller, shallower seas.

Along with the tide patterns vide infra , these factors tend to inhibit the generation of great ocean currents, and thus to somewhat isolate the latitudes from each other. That isn't all bad if "Norway" has no "Gulf Stream" to warm it, neither does the "Pacific Northwest" have a "Kuroshio" to chill it, and marine life is even more varied than on Earth.

The proportion of land to water surface is slightly higher than Terrestrial, mainly because of the powerful upthrust of crustal masses�though doubtless the splitting of H 2 O molecules by ultraviolet quanta, before there was a protective ozone layer, also has a good deal to do with this.

However, there is no water shortage; in fact, the smaller size of individual land blocks and the vigorous air circulation make for better distribution of this substance and keep continental interiors reasonably temperate. The abundance of heavy metals is a boon to industry, yet not altogether a blessing.

Some of these elements and their compounds are poisonous to man. Concentrated hi certain areas, they make the soil, or organisms living there, dangerous. But again, this is by no means the universal case, and precautions are not hard to take once people have been warned. Several beautiful minerals and gemstones appear to be unique to this planet. I drew this because I like the shape. However, this probably means that that peninsula is mountainous since almost all such peninsulas from our base planet are mountainous.

This will help me place my mountains in the next step. Mountain ranges A and D are formed by the collision of continents A and D. Range B results from continent A and B splitting as well as from subduction. When a rift occurs, one plate usually goes off in one direct and the other continues its path. Mountain range C is pure subduction while mountain range E is a mixture of separation and collision.

The split of continent E and D formed the north-south part, and the east-west part is from a plate that separated from E and then returned again. Range BE is subduction created. What I really did was put down the mountains where I thought they looked good, where they pleased my eye after looking at atlases for a long time.

I came up with how they were formed after I already put them on the map. This is the great freedom of trusting your eye when placing mountains. This follows along with how they fit in the pangea stage.

This means that mountain range A formed both by rifting as well as subduction. This is where the ridge is subducted under the continental shelf of E which extends under the water. With this in mind, placing islands on the map is fairly simple. The large peninsula on B gains an archipelago islands A , and islands form over the subduction zone offshore of E islands B. More islands form along the slip plate islands C.

This gives you rough guidelines when you actually place your islands in creation. Namely, this lets me know where to put larger islands and why they are there. Ever since Galileo's first telescopic glimpse of the moon. Because earth's mountains are steep until weathering erodes them, it was assumed that mountains on the moon would be like the steep-sided peaks shown here.

The reasoning: there could be no weathering since the moon has no atmosphere. Continued observation and refined techniques of measurement now indicate that while the moon does indeed have enormous mountains, very few of them are steep-sided, as was once believed.

Instead these lunar mountains tend to slope gradually, as shown here. Precipitous slopes have been eroded by meteorites. For a given region, its climate and biome type can be predicted by the region's average temperature and annual precipitation.

These vary from planet to planet since their precise latitudes depend upon the planet's axial tilt. Their precise average latitudes are fixed and are the same on all planets. However, they are not straight lines, they writhe like a worm on brown acid from hour to hour.

Annual precipitation is also controlled by oceans, mountains, and other geographical features. The Nazi Persecution of the Churches � Crandell, William F. Presidential Studies Quarterly. JSTOR Deighton, Len New York: Random House. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. Dollinger, Hans []. New York: Gramercy. Dorland, Michael Tauber Institute for the Study of European Jewry series.

Downing, David The Nazi Death Camps. World Almanac Library of the Holocaust. Pleasantville, NY: Gareth Stevens. Ellis, John London: Aurum. Evans, Richard J. The Coming of the Third Reich. The Third Reich in Power. The Third Reich At War. The Face of the Third Reich. Fest, Joachim C. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Fest, Joachim New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Fischer, Klaus P. Nazi Germany: A New History. London: Constable and Company. Fromm, Erich [].

The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness. Fulda, Bernhard Press and Politics in the Weimar Republic. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gellately, Robert Der "Generalplan Ost". Central European History. Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany.

Ghaemi, Nassir New York: Penguin Publishing Group. Goeschel, Christian Goldhagen, Daniel New York: Knopf. The Meaning of Hitler. War, Peace, and All That Jazz. A History of US. New York: Oxford University Press. Halperin, Samuel William []. New York: W. Thomas Thornton. Hancock, Ian In Stone, Dan ed. The Historiography of the Holocaust. New York; Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Heck, Alfons []. Phoenix, AZ: Renaissance House. Heston, Leonard L. New York: Stein and Day. The Foreign Policy of the Third Reich. London: Batsford. Hitler, Adolf []. Mein Kampf. Ralph Manheim. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Hitler's Table Talk, � London: Enigma. Jetzinger, Franz []. Hitler's Youth. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. Joachimsthaler, Anton []. London: Brockhampton Press. Kee, Robert Munich: The Eleventh Hour. London: Hamish Hamilton. Keegan, John London: Pimlico. Keller, Gustav Kellogg, Michael Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kershaw, Ian []. Hitler: � Hubris. London: Arnold. Hitler, � Nemesis. New York; London: W. Kershaw, Ian Hitler: A Biography. The End: Hitler's Germany, �45 Paperback ed. London: Penguin. Koch, H. June The Historical Journal. Kolb, Eberhard []. The Weimar Republic. London; New York: Routledge. New York: Routledge. Kressel, Neil J. Boulder: Basic Books.

Kubizek, August []. The Young Hitler I Knew. Kurowski, Franz Stackpole Military History series. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books.

Langer, Walter C. New York: Basic Books. Europe In The Twentieth Century. London: Sphere Books. Linge, Heinz []. Roger Moorhouse. New York: Skyhorse Publishing.

History Press. Maiolo, Joseph London: Macmillan Press. Manvell, Roger ; Fraenkel, Heinrich []. London; New York: Greenhill; Skyhorse. Maser, Werner Hitler: Legend, Myth, Reality. London: Allen Lane.

Marrus, Michael The Holocaust in History. Toronto: Key Porter. McGovern, James Martin Bormann. New York: William Morrow. OCLC McKale, Donald McNab, Chris The Third Reich.

London: Amber Books. Megargee, Geoffrey P. Messerschmidt, Manfred In Deist, Wilhelm ed. Germany and the Second World War. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Why Hitler? Westport, Conn: Praeger. Amsterdam; New York: Rodopi. Murray, Williamson The Change in the European Balance of Power. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Naimark, Norman M. Adolf Hitler: A Biographical Companion. University of North Carolina Press. Niewyk, Donald L. The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. New York: Columbia University Press. The Bunker. New York: Da Capo Press. The Road To War. London: Macmillan.

In Lukes, Igor; Goldstein, Erik eds. Overy, Richard In Martel, Gordon ed. London: Routledge. In Dear, I. Payne, Robert []. The Life and Death of Adolf Hitler. New York: Hippocrene Books. Plating, John D. Proctor, Robert The Nazi War on Cancer. Read, Anthony Redlich, Fritz R. September Hitler: Diagnosis of a Destructive Prophet. Rees, Laurence The Nazis: A Warning from History. New York: New Press. Hitlers Gott. Roberts, G.

Roberts, J. A History of Europe. Oxford: Helicon. Roberts, Martin London: Oxford University Press. Robertson, Esmonde M. London: Longmans. Robertson, E. London: Harper Perennial. Columbia, S. C: University of South Carolina Press. Rothwell, Victor The Origins of the Second World War. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Rummel, Rudolph Death by Government. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.

Sereny, Gitta []. New York; Toronto: Vintage. Shirer, William L. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. Inside the Third Reich. New York: Avon. Steinberg, Jonathan June The English Historical Review.

Steiner, John Michael The Hague: Mouton. Stolfi, Russel March The Journal of Modern History. S2CID Chicago: Heinemann Library. Le Tissier, Tony []. Race for the Reichstag. Toland, John Adolf Hitler. New York; Toronto: Ballantine Books.

Toland, John []. New York: Anchor Books. Vinogradov, V. London: Chaucer Press. The Psychopathic God: Adolf Hitler. Weinberg, Gerhard December The American Historical Review. Weinberg, Gerhard Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. New York: Enigma. Welch, David Hitler: Profile of a Dictator.

Wheeler-Bennett, John The Nemesis of Power. Wilt, Alan December Military Affairs. Winkler, Heinrich August Germany: The Long Road West. Sager, Alexander trans. Ziemke, Earl F. Battle for Berlin: End of the Third Reich. Battle Book 6. London: Ballantine Books. Landeshauptstadt Potsdam.

December Retrieved 13 June Bazyler, Michael J. Yad Vashem. The World Holocaust Remembrance Center. Retrieved 7 January Diver, Krysia 4 August The Guardian. Guardian Media Group. Retrieved 23 May Fox News. Archived from the original on 24 November Retrieved 1 December Retrieved 16 October The Globe and Mail.

Phillip Crawley. Frauenfeld, A. E August German Propaganda Archive. Calvin College. Time Magazine. Archived from the original on 17 April Retrieved 15 April Spiegel Online International. Retrieved 12 December Hinrichs, Per 10 March Spiegel Online in German.

MI5 Security Service. Hoffman, David creator, writer How Hitler Lost the War television documentary. US: Varied Directions. Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Jones, Bill creator, director The Fatal Attraction of Adolf Hitler television documentary. England: BBC. Retrieved 27 April Kotanko, Florian. House of Responsibility � Braunau am Inn. HRB News.

The Daily Telegraph. London: TMG. ISSN Retrieved 10 May Longerich, Heinz Peter Holocaust Denial on Trial. Atlanta: Emory University. Archived from the original on 22 July Retrieved 31 July Archived from the original on 9 July Archived from the original on 18 April Retrieved 31 December Martin, Jonathan creator, writer US: World Media Rights.

Archived from the original on 28 February Retrieved 27 August McMillan, Dan October H-Genocide, H-Net Reviews. BBC News. Phayer, Michael The Churches and Nazi Persecution.

Archived from the original on 3 March Porter, Tom 24 August IB Times. Retrieved 22 November Redlich, Fritz C. Arch Intern Med. Rees, Laurence writer, director Kershaw, Ian writer, consultant The Dark Charisma of Adolf Hitler television documentary. UK: BBC. Retrieved 6 September Sharkey, Joe 13 January The New York Times. Retrieved 7 June Weber, Thomas a. BBC History Magazine. UK: Immediate Media Company.

Archived from the original on 21 November Retrieved 19 November Wilson, Bee 9 October New Statesman. UK: Questia. Archived from the original on 13 December Retrieved 22 May Retrieved 29 May Hitler's Globe Private library. Pets: Blondi dog. Streets named after Hitler Mannerheim recording.

Links to related articles. Definitions Economics Fascism and ideology Fascism worldwide Symbolism. Arditi Fascio. Category Politics portal. The Wehrmacht Cinema Economy. Nazi Party. The Holocaust. Camps and ghettos. Wannsee Conference Operation Reinhard Holocaust trains. List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust. Einsatzgruppen Police Regiments Order Police battalions. Early elements Aftermath Remembrance.

Time Persons of the Year. Roosevelt Hugh S. Johnson Franklin D. Eisenhower Harry S. Truman James F. Byrnes George Marshall Harry S. Eisenhower U. Bush Chancellors of Germany. Otto von Bismarck. List of chancellors. Members of the Hitler Cabinet.

Fritz Todt Albert Speer. Karl Hermann Frank. Hanns Kerrl Hermann Muhs acting. Alfred Rosenberg. Bernhard Rust. Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk. Konstantin von Neurath Joachim von Ribbentrop. Wilhelm Frick Heinrich Himmler. Franz Seldte. Joseph Goebbels. Werner von Blomberg Wilhelm Keitel. Heads of State of Germany since Offices and positions of Adolf Hitler.

People killed or wounded in the 20 July plot. Robert Ley Karl-Jesko von Puttkamer. Walter Frentz. Robert Ritter von Greim Hanna Reitsch. Nicolaus von Below.

Cheap Fishing Boats For Sale Nz Webmail Fishing Boats For Sale Buffalo Ny India Small Powerboat With Cabin Journal