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Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It is an organic material � a natural composite of cellulose fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of lignin that resists compression. Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems of trees, [1] or it is defined more broadly to include the same type of tissue elsewhere such as in the roots wood boat construction terms young trees or shrubs.

It also conveys water and nutrients between the leavesother growing tissues, and the roots. Wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to material engineered from wood, or wood chips or fiber.

Wood has been used for thousands of years for fuelas a construction materialfor making tools and weaponsfurniture and paper. More recently it emerged as a feedstock for the production of purified cellulose and its derivatives, such as cellophane and cellulose acetate. In approximately 3. Dominant uses were for furniture and building construction. A discovery in the Canadian province of New Brunswick yielded the earliest known plants to have grown wood, approximately to million years ago.

Wood can be dated by carbon dating and in some species by dendrochronology to determine when a wooden object was created. People have used wood for thousands of years for many purposes, including as a fuel or as a construction material for making housestoolsweaponsfurniturepackagingartworksand paper.

Known constructions using wood date back ten thousand years. Buildings like the European Neolithic long house were made primarily of wood. Recent use of wood has been enhanced by the addition of steel and bronze into construction. The year-to-year variation in tree-ring widths and isotopic abundances gives clues to the prevailing climate at the time a tree was cut.

Wood, in the strict sense, is yielded by treeswhich increase in diameter by the formation, between the existing wood and the inner barkof new woody layers which envelop the entire stem, living branches, and roots. This process is known as secondary growth ; it is the result of cell division in the vascular cambiuma lateral meristem, and subsequent expansion of the new cells.

These cells then go on to form thickened secondary cell walls, composed mainly of wood boat construction terms younghemicellulose and lignin. Where the differences between the four seasons are distinct, e. New Zealandgrowth can occur wood boat construction terms young a discrete annual or seasonal pattern, leading to growth rings ; these can usually be most clearly seen on the end of a log, but are also visible on the other surfaces.

Wood boat construction terms young the distinctiveness between seasons is annual as is the case in equatorial regions, e.

Singaporethese growth rings are referred to as annual rings. Where there is little seasonal difference growth rings are likely to be indistinct or absent. If the bark of the tree has been removed in a particular area, the rings will likely be deformed as the plant overgrows the scar. If there are differences within a growth ring, then the part of a growth ring nearest the center of the tree, and formed early in the growing season when growth is rapid, is usually composed of wider elements.

It is usually lighter in color than that near the outer portion of the ring, and is known as earlywood or springwood. The outer portion formed later in the season is then known as the latewood or summerwood. If a tree grows all its life in the open and the conditions of soil and site remain unchanged, it will make its most rapid growth in youth, and gradually decline.

The annual rings of growth are for many years quite wide, but later they become narrower and narrower. Since each succeeding ring is wood boat construction terms young down on the outside wood boat construction terms young the wood previously formed, it follows Wood Boat Construction Terms 20 that unless a tree materially increases its production of wood from wood boat construction terms young to year, the rings must necessarily become thinner as the trunk gets wider.

As a tree reaches maturity its crown becomes more open and the annual wood production is lessened, thereby reducing still more the width of the growth rings. In the case of forest-grown trees so much depends upon the competition of the trees in their struggle for light and nourishment that periods of rapid and slow growth may alternate.

Some trees, such as southern oaksmaintain the same width of ring for hundreds of years. Upon the whole, however, wood boat construction terms young a tree gets larger in diameter the width of the growth rings decreases.

As a tree grows, lower branches often die, and their bases may become overgrown and enclosed by subsequent layers of trunk wood, forming a type of imperfection known as a knot. The dead branch may not be attached to the trunk wood wood boat construction terms young at its base, and can drop out after the tree has been sawn into boards.

Knots affect the technical properties of the wood, usually reducing the local strength and wood boat construction terms young the tendency for splitting along the wood grain, [ citation needed ] but may be exploited for visual effect. In wood boat construction terms young longitudinally sawn plank, a knot will appear as a roughly circular "solid" usually darker piece of wood around which the grain of the rest of the wood "flows" parts and rejoins.

Within a knot, the direction of the wood grain direction is up to 90 degrees different from the grain direction of the regular wood. In the tree a knot is either the base of a side branch or a dormant wood boat construction terms young. A knot when the base of a side branch is conical in shape hence the roughly circular cross-section with the inner tip at the point in stem diameter at which the plant's vascular cambium was located when the branch formed as a bud.

In grading lumber and structural timberknots are classified according to their form, size, soundness, and the firmness with which they are held in place. This firmness is affected by, among other factors, the length of time for which the branch was dead while the attaching stem continued to grow. Knots materially affect cracking and warping, ease in working, and cleavability of timber.

They are defects which weaken timber and lower its value for structural purposes where strength is an important consideration.

The extent to which knots affect the strength of a beam depends upon their position, size, number, and condition.

A knot on the upper side is compressed, while one on the lower side is subjected to tension. If there is a season check in wood boat construction terms young knot, as is often the case, it will offer little resistance to this tensile stress. Small knots, however, may be located along the neutral plane of a beam and increase the strength by preventing longitudinal shearing.

Knots in a board or plank are least injurious when they extend through it at right angles to its broadest surface. Knots which occur near the ends of a beam do not weaken it. Sound knots which occur in the central portion one-fourth the height of the beam from either edge are not serious defects. Knots do not necessarily influence the stiffness of structural timber, this will depend on the size and location. Stiffness and elastic strength are more dependent upon the sound wood than upon localized defects.

The breaking strength is very susceptible to defects. Sound knots do not weaken wood when wood boat construction terms young to compression parallel to the grain.

In some decorative applications, wood with knots may be desirable to add visual. In applications where wood is paintedsuch as skirting boards, fascia boards, door frames and furniture, resins present in the timber may continue to 'bleed' through to the surface of a knot for months or even years after manufacture and show as a yellow or brownish stain.

A knot primer paint or solution knottingcorrectly applied during preparation, may do much to reduce this problem but it is difficult to control completely, especially when using mass-produced kiln-dried Wood Boat Construction Terms 05 timber stocks. Heartwood or duramen [10] is wood that as a result of a naturally occurring chemical transformation has become more resistant to decay. Heartwood formation is a genetically programmed process that occurs spontaneously.

Some uncertainty exists as to whether the wood dies during heartwood formation, as it can still chemically react to decay organisms, but only. The term heartwood derives solely from its position and not from any vital importance to the tree. This is evidenced by the fact that a tree can thrive with its heart completely decayed.

Some species begin to form heartwood very early in life, so having only a thin layer of live sapwood, while in others the change comes slowly. Thin sapwood is characteristic of such species as chestnutblack locustmulberryosage-orangeand sassafraswhile in mapleashhickoryhackberrybeechand pine, thick sapwood is the rule.

Heartwood is often visually distinct from the living sapwood, and can be distinguished in a cross-section where the boundary will tend to follow the growth rings. For example, it is sometimes much darker. However, other processes such as decay or wood boat construction terms young invasion can also discolor wood, even in woody plants that do not form heartwood, which may lead to confusion.

Sapwood or alburnum [13] is the younger, outermost wood; in the growing tree it is living wood, [14] and its principal functions are to conduct water from the roots to the leaves and to store up and give back according to the season the reserves prepared in the leaves. However, by the time they become competent to conduct water, all xylem tracheids and vessels have lost their cytoplasm and the cells are therefore functionally dead.

All wood in a tree is first formed as sapwood. The more leaves a tree bears and the more vigorous its growth, the larger the volume of sapwood required. Hence trees making rapid growth in the open have thicker sapwood for their size than trees of the same species growing in dense forests. Sometimes trees of species that do form heartwood grown in the open may become of considerable size, 30 cm 12 in or more in diameter, before any heartwood begins to form, for example, in second-growth hickoryor open-grown pines.

No definite relation exists between the annual rings of growth and the amount of sapwood. Within the same species the cross-sectional area of the sapwood is very roughly proportional to the size of the crown of the tree.

If the rings are narrow, more of them are wood boat construction terms young than where they are wide. As the tree gets larger, the sapwood must necessarily become thinner or increase materially in volume. Sapwood is relatively thicker in the upper portion of the trunk of a tree than near the base, because the age and the diameter of the upper sections are.

When a tree is very young it is covered with limbs almost, if not entirely, to the ground, but as it grows older some or all of them will eventually die and are either broken off or fall off. Subsequent growth of wood may completely conceal the stubs wood boat construction terms young will however remain as knots.

No matter how smooth and clear a log is on the outside, it is more or less knotty near the middle. Consequently, the sapwood of an old tree, and particularly of wood boat construction terms young forest-grown tree, will be freer from knots than the inner heartwood.

Since in most uses of wood, knots are defects that weaken the timber and interfere with wood boat construction terms young ease of working and other properties, it follows that a given piece of sapwood, because of its position in the tree, may well be stronger than a piece of heartwood from the same tree.

Different pieces of wood cut from a large tree may differ decidedly, particularly if the tree is big and mature. In some trees, the wood laid on late in the life of a tree is softer, lighter, weaker, and more even-textured than that produced earlier, but in other trees, the reverse applies.

This may or may not correspond to heartwood and sapwood. In a large log the sapwood, because of the time in the life of the tree when it was grown, may be inferior in hardness wood boat construction terms young, strengthand toughness to equally sound heartwood from the same log. In a smaller tree, the reverse may be true. In species wood boat construction terms young show a distinct difference between heartwood and sapwood the natural color of heartwood is usually darker than that of the sapwood, and very frequently the contrast is conspicuous see section of yew log.

This is produced by deposits in the wood boat construction terms young of chemical substances, so that a dramatic color variation does not imply a significant difference in the mechanical properties wood boat construction terms young heartwood and sapwood, although there may be a marked biochemical difference between the two.

Some experiments on very resinous longleaf pine specimens indicate an increase in strength, due to the resin which increases the strength when dry. Such resin-saturated heartwood wood boat construction terms young called "fat wood boat construction terms young. Structures built of fat lighter are almost impervious to rot and termites ; however they are very flammable.

Stumps of old longleaf pines are often dug, split into small pieces and sold as kindling for fires. Stumps thus dug may actually remain a century or more since being cut. Spruce wood boat construction terms young with crude resin and dried is also greatly increased in strength .

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