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Who was Frederic Sorrieu? The French revolution took place in the year: a b c d The French armies moved into Holland in the year: a b c d The Rays of the rising sun means: a beginning of a new year b beginning of a new period c beginning of a new regime d beginning of a new era.
Answer: d beginning of a new era The Rays of the rising sun means beginning of a new era. Who said when France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold? Answer: a Metternich It was Mettemich who said these words.
This emphasized the importance of France at this time. When did the First World War take place? Which treaty recognised Greece as an independent nation? Which German philosopher claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the German people?
After the defeat of Napoleon in , European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism. After , nationalism in Europe moved away from its association with democracy and revolution.
Plebiscite means an indirect vote by which people of a region are asked to accept or reject a proposal. In , a customs union was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German states.
Cavour who led the movement to unify the regions of Italy was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. Ethnic relates to a common racial, tribal, or cultural origin or background that a community identifies with. In visual representations, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for victory.
The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst the ������.. The Treaty of Constantinople of recognised ��������. The s were years of great economic hardship in ���������..
On 18 May , elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their places in the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of ��������. The Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to the ��������� in In , ������� led an army of volunteers to Rome to fight the last obstacle to the unification of Italy.
In history, absolutist refers to a form of ����������.. Men without property and all women were excluded from political rights. Only for a brief period under the Jacobins did all adult males enjoy suffrage. However, the Napoleonic Code went back to limited suffrage and reduced women to the status of a minor, subject to the authority of fathers and husbands. Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries women and non-propertied men organised opposition movements demanding equal political rights.
A merchant travelling in from Hamburg to Nuremberg to sell his goods would have had to pass through 11 customs barriers and pay a customs duty of about 5 per cent at each one of them. Duties were often levied according to the weight or measurement of the goods. As each region had its own system of weights and measures this involved time-consuming calculation.
There are some cloth, for example, was the elle which in each region stood for a different length. An Elle of textile material bought in Frankfurt would get you This Code was exported to the regions under French control. In the Dutch Republic, in Switzerland, in Italy and Germany, Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed a new-found freedom. Businessmen and small-scale producers of goods, in particular, began to realise that uniform laws, standardised weights and measures, and a common national currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another. In , a customs union or zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German states. There are some major steps to improve economy: The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.
The creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility, harnessing economic interests to national unification. A wave of economic nationalism strengthened the wider nationalist sentiments growing at the time. In by the Napoleon, defeat European Government were deriving the spirit of conservatism. Conservatives believed that established, traditional institutions of state and society � like the monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and the family �should be preserved.
Most conservatives, however, did not propose a return to the society of pre-revolutionary days. Rather, they realised, from the changes initiated by Napoleon, that modernisation could in fact strengthen traditional institutions like the monarchy.
The Treaty of Vienna of with the object of undoing most of the changes that had come about in Europe during the Napoleonic wars. The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed during the French Revolution, was restored to power, and France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon They setup boundaries of France it prevent for their future of the Netherlands, which included Belgium, was set up in the north and Genoa was added to Piedmont in the south.
Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers, while Austria was given control of northern Italy. But the German confederation of 39 states that had been set up by Napoleon was left untouched. In the east, Russia was given part of Poland while Prussia was given a portion of Saxony.
The lord Bourbon kings who had been restored to power during the conservative reaction after , were now overthrown by liberal revolutionaries who installed a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head. To be revolutionary at this time meant a commitment to oppose monarchical forms that had been established after the Vienna Congress, and to fight for liberty and freedom.
Most of these revolutionaries also saw the creation of nation-states as a necessary part of this struggle for freedom. He was born in Genoa in , He was thea member of the secret societyof the Carbonari.
As a young man of 24, he was sent into exile in for attempting a revolution in Liguria. The Greece got the support from other Greeks living in exile and also from many West Europeans who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture. Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and mobilised public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire. Lord Byron, the Treaty of Constantinople of recognised Greece as an independent nation.
An event that mobilised nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe was the Greek war of independence.
Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century. The Poland was being partitioned at the end of the eighteenth century by the Great Powers � Russia, Prussia and Austria. Even though Poland no longer existed as an independent territory, national feelings were kept alive through music and language. Karol Kurpinski, for example celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols Language also played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments.
After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere. In , an armed rebellion against Russian rule took place which was ultimately crushed. When the years of great economic hardship. In most countries there were more seekers of jobs than employment. Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums. Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine-made goods from England, where industrialisation was more advanced than on the continent.
This was especially so in textile production, which was carried out mainly in homes or small workshops and was only partly mechanised. In those regions of Europe where the aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations. The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and country.
The development of nationalism did not come about only through wars and territorial expansion. Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation: art and poetry, stories and music helped express and shape nationalist feelings. Let us look at Romanticism, a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. Other Romantics such as the German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people � das volk.
It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation volksgeist was popularised. The impact revolution of liberals are the monarch and a republic based on universal male suffrage had been proclaimed.
They took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push their demands for the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principle In the German regions a large number of political members were middle-class professionals, businessmen and associations whose prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly.
Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and taken part in political meetings and demonstrations. Despite this they were denied The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal movement, in which large numbers of women had participated actively over the years.
The reaction of national assembly was the years after , the autocratic monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe began to introduce the changes that had already taken place in Western Europe before Thus serfdom and bonded labour were abolished both in the Habsburg dominions and in Russia.
The Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in The contribution of Otto van Bismarck the architect of this process carried out with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. Three wars over seven years � with Austria, Denmark and France � ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification. During the s, Giuseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic.
The failure of revolutionary uprisings both in and meant that the mantle now fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II to unify the Italian states through war. In the eyes of the ruling elites of this region, a unified Italy offered them the possibility of economic development and political dominance.
Chief Minister Cavour who led the movement to unify the regions of Italy was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. Like many other wealthy and educated members of the Italian elite, he spoke French much better than he did Italian. When the year of , they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish rulers. The British parliament was henceforth dominated by its English members.
The Catholic clans that inhabited the Scottish Highlands suffered terrible repression whenever they attempted to assert their independence. The Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland. After , nationalism in Europe moved away from its association with democracy and revolution. Nationalist sentiments were often mobilised by conservatives for promoting state power and achieving political domination over Europe.
Germany and Italy came to be unified as nation-states. As you have seen, nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans, who in tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament. From then on, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification. In other words they represented a country as if it were a person.
Nations were then portrayed as female figures. The female form that was chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any particular woman in real life; rather it sought to give the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form. That is, the female figure became an allegory of the nation.
Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic � the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade. Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of the national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with it. Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps. Similarly, Germania became the allegory of the German nation. In visual representations, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.
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