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The corresponding speed V , denoted as italics in this article is a scalar value. Likewise, a force vector, F , denotes direction and strength , whereas its corresponding scalar F denotes strength alone. Graphically, each vector is represented with an arrow that shows direction and a length that shows speed or strength. Vectors of consistent units e. Lift on a sail L , acting as an airfoil , occurs in a direction perpendicular to the incident airstream the apparent wind velocity, V A , for the head sail and is a result of pressure differences between the windward and leeward surfaces and depends on angle of attack, sail shape, air density, and speed of the apparent wind.

Pressure differences result from the normal force per unit area on the sail from the air passing around it. The lift force results from the average pressure on the windward surface of the sail being higher than the average pressure on the leeward side. As air follows a curved path along the windward side of a sail, there is a pressure gradient perpendicular to the flow direction with lower pressure on the outside of the curve and higher pressure on the inside.

Angle of attack is a function of both the craft's point of sail and how the sail is adjusted with respect to the apparent wind. As the lift generated by a sail increases, so does lift-induced drag , which together with parasitic drag constitutes total drag, D.

This occurs when the angle of attack increases with sail trim or change of course to cause the lift coefficient to increase up to the point of aerodynamic stall , so does the lift-induced drag coefficient. At the onset of stall, lift is abruptly decreased, as is lift-induced drag, but viscous pressure drag, a component of parasitic drag, increases due to the formation of separated flow on the surface of the sail.

Sails with the apparent wind behind them especially going downwind operate in a stalled condition. Lift and drag are components of the total aerodynamic force on sail F T. Since the forces on the sail are resisted by forces in the water for a boat or on the traveled surface for an ice boat or land sailing craft , their corresponding forces can also be decomposed from total aerodynamic force into driving force F R and lateral force F LAT.

Driving force overcomes resistance to forward motion. Lateral force is met by lateral resistance from a keel, blade or wheel, but also creates a heeling force. Decomposition of forces in horizontal cross-section acting on a sail, generating lift. Wind forces acting on a sailboat sail L and D and being transmitted to the boat F R �propelling the boat forward�and F LAT �pushing the boat sideways , while close-hauled, are both components of total aerodynamic force F T.

Apparent wind V A is the air velocity acting upon the leading edge of the most forward sail or as experienced by instrumentation or crew on a moving sailing craft. In nautical terminology , wind speeds are normally expressed in knots and wind angles in degrees. The craft's point of sail affects its velocity V B for a given true wind velocity V T.

Likewise, the directly downwind speed of all conventional sailing craft is limited to the true wind speed. Boat velocity in black generates an equal and opposite apparent wind component not shown , which adds to the true wind to become apparent wind. Apparent wind and forces on a sailboat. As the boat sails further from the wind, the apparent wind becomes smaller and the lateral component becomes less; boat speed is highest on the beam reach.

Apparent wind on an iceboat. As the iceboat sails further from the wind, the apparent wind increases slightly and the boat speed is highest on the broad reach. The sail is sheeted in for all three points of sail.

Sailing craft A is close-hauled. Sailing craft B is on a beam reach. Sailing craft C is on a broad reach. A sailboat's speed through the water is limited by the resistance that results from hull drag in the water. Sail boats on foils are much less limited. Ice boats typically have the least resistance to forward motion of any sailing craft.

Craft with the higher forward resistance achieve lower forward velocities for a given wind velocity than ice boats, which can travel at speeds several multiples of the true wind speed. On conventional sail boats, the sails are set to create lift for those points of sail where it's possible to align the leading edge of the sail with the apparent wind. For a sailboat, point of sail affects lateral force significantly.

The higher the boat points to the wind under sail, the stronger the lateral force, which requires resistance from a keel or other underwater foils, including daggerboard, centerboard, skeg and rudder.

Lateral force also induces heeling in a sailboat, which requires resistance by weight of ballast from the crew or the boat itself and by the shape of the boat, especially with a catamaran. As the boat points off the wind, lateral force and the forces required to resist it become less important.

Each sailing craft is a system that mobilizes wind force through its sails�supported by spars and rigging�which provide motive power and reactive force from the underbody of a sailboat�including the keel, centerboard, rudder or other underwater foils�or the running gear of an ice boat or land craft, which allows it to be kept on a course.

Without the ability to mobilize reactive forces in directions different from the wind direction, a craft would simply be adrift before the wind. Accordingly, motive and heeling forces on sailing craft are either components of or reactions to the total aerodynamic force F T on sails, which is a function of apparent wind velocity V A and varies with point of sail.

The forward driving force F R component contributes to boat velocity V B , which is, itself, a determinant of apparent wind velocity. Absent lateral reactive forces to F T from a keel in water , a skate runner on ice or a wheel on land , a craft would only be able to move downwind and the sail would not be able to develop lift.

At a stable angle of heel for a sailboat and a steady speed, aerodynamic and hydrodynamic forces are in balance. Integrated over the sailing craft, the total aerodynamic force F T is located at the centre of effort CE , which is a function of the design and adjustment of the sails on a sailing craft. Similarly, the total hydrodynamic force F l is located at the centre of lateral resistance CLR , which is a function of the design of the hull and its underwater appendages keel, rudder, foils, etc.

These two forces act in opposition to one another with F l a reaction to F T. Whereas ice boats and land-sailing craft resist lateral forces with their wide stance and high-friction contact with the surface, sailboats travel through water, which provides limited resistance to side forces.

In a sailboat, side forces are resisted in two ways: [8]. All sailing craft reach a constant forward speed V B for a given wind speed V T and point of sail, when the forward driving force F R equals the forward resisting force R l. Accordingly, high-performance ice boats are streamlined to minimize aerodynamic drag. The approximate locus of net aerodynamic force on a craft with a single sail is the centre of effort CE at the geometric centre of the sail.

Filled with wind, the sail has a roughly spherical polygon shape and if the shape is stable, then the location of centre of effort is stable. On sailing craft with multiple sails, the position of centre of effort varies with the sail plan.

Sail trim or airfoil profile, boat trim and point of sail also affect CE. Net aerodynamic force with respect to the air stream is usually considered in reference to the direction of the apparent wind V A over the surface plane ocean, land or ice and is decomposed into lift L , perpendicular with V A , and drag D , in line with V A.

For windsurfers, lift component vertical to the surface plane is important, because in strong winds windsurfer sails are leaned into the wind to create a vertical lifting component F VERT that reduces drag on the board hull through the water. The three dimensional vector relationship for net aerodynamic force with respect to apparent wind V A is: [8].

The scalar values and direction of these components can be dynamic, depending on wind and waves for a boat. The three dimensional vector relationship for net aerodynamic force with respect to the course over the surface is: [8]. Reactive forces on sailing craft include forward resistance�sailboat's hydrodynamic resistance R l , an ice boat's sliding resistance or a land sailing craft's rolling resistance in the direction of travel�which are to be minimized in order to increase speed, and lateral force, perpendicular to the direction of travel, which is to be made sufficiently strong to minimize sideways motion and to guide the craft on course.

Forward resistance comprises the types of drag that impede a sailboat's speed through water or an ice boat's speed over the surface include components of parasitic drag , consisting primarily of form drag , which arises because of the shape of the hull, and skin friction , which arises from the friction of the water for boats or air for ice boats and land sailing craft against the "skin" of the hull that is moving through it.

Displacement vessels are also subject to wave resistance from the energy that goes into displacing water into waves and that is limited by hull speed , which is a function of waterline length, Wheeled vehicles' forward speed is subject to rolling friction and ice boats are subject to kinetic or sliding friction.

Parasitic drag in water or air increases with the square of speed V B 2 or V A 2 , respectively ; [11] [12] rolling friction increases linearly with velocity; [13] whereas kinetic friction is normally a constant, [14] but on ice may become reduced with speed as it transitions to lubricated friction with melting.

Ways to reduce wave-making resistance used on sailing vessels include reduced displacement �through planing or as with a windsurfer offsetting vessel weight with a lifting sail�and fine entry , as with catamarans, where a narrow hull minimizes the water displaced into a bow wave. International Moth class sailboat on foils. DN class ice boat. Sailing craft with low forward resistance can achieve high velocities with respect to the wind velocity: [17].

Lateral force is a reaction supplied by the underwater shape of a sailboat, the blades of an ice boat and the wheels of a land sailing craft. Sailboats rely on keels , centerboards , and other underwater foils, including rudders, that provide lift in the lateral direction, to provide hydrodynamic lateral force P LAT to offset the lateral force component acting on the sail F LAT and minimize leeway.

They incorporate a wide variety of design considerations. The forces on sails that contribute to torque and cause rotation with respect to the boat's longitudinal fore and aft , horizontal abeam and vertical aloft rotational axes result in: roll e. Heeling, which results from the lateral force component F LAT , is the most significant rotational effect of total aerodynamic force F T.

Sails come in a wide variety of configurations that are designed to match the capabilities of the sailing craft to be powered by them. They are designed to stay within the limitations of a craft's stability and power requirements, which are functions of hull for boats or chassis for land craft design. Sails derive power from wind that varies in time and with height above the surface. In order to do so, they are designed to adjust to the wind force for various points of sail.

Both their design and method for control Vector 39 Sailboat For Sale include means to match their lift and drag capabilities to the available apparent wind, by changing surface area, angle of attack, and curvature. Wind speed increases with height above the surface; at the same time, wind speed may vary over short periods of time as gusts. These considerations may be described empirically. Measurements show that wind speed, V h varies, according to a power law with height h above a non-zero measurement height datum h 0 �e.

Where the power law exponent p has values that have been empirically determined to range from 0. Additionally, apparent wind direction moves aft Sailboat Vector Png 90 with height above water, which may necessitate a corresponding twist in the shape of the sail to achieve attached flow with height. Hsu gives a simple formula for a gust factor G for winds as a function of the exponent p , above, where G is the ratio of the wind gust speed to baseline wind speed at a given height: [28]. This, combined with changes in wind direction suggest the degree to which a sailing craft must adjust to wind gusts on a given course.

A sailing craft's motive system comprises one or more sails, supported by spars and rigging, that derive power from the wind and induce reactive force from the underbody of a sailboat or the running gear of an ice boat or land craft.

Depending on the angle of attack of a set of sails with respect to the apparent wind, each sail is providing motive force to the sailing craft either from lift-dominant attached flow or drag-dominant separated flow. Additionally, sails may interact with one another to create forces that are different from the sum of the individual contributions each sail, when used alone. Sails allow progress of a sailing craft to windward, thanks to their ability to generate lift and the craft's ability to resist the lateral forces that result.

Each sail configuration has a characteristic coefficient of lift and attendant coefficient of drag, which can be determined experimentally and calculated theoretically. Sailing craft orient their sails with a favorable angle of attack between the entry point of the sail and the apparent wind as their course changes. The ability to generate lift is limited by sailing too close to the wind when no effective angle of attack is available to generate lift luffing and sailing sufficiently off the wind that the sail cannot be oriented at a favorable angle of attack running downwind.

Instead, past a critical angle of attack , the sail stalls Sailboat Vector Png 70 and promotes flow separation. Each type of sail, acting as an airfoil, has characteristic coefficients of lift C L and lift-induced drag C D at a given angle of attack, which follow that same basic form of: [3].

As the angle of attack grows larger, the lift reaches a maximum at some angle; increasing the angle of attack beyond this critical angle of attack causes the upper-surface flow to separate from the convex surface of the sail; there is less deflection of air to windward, so the sail as airfoil generates less lift. The sail is said to be stalled. Polar diagram : Coefficients of lift C L and drag C D for the angles of attack shown for the same sail.

Aspect ratio : Polar plots of C L versus C D for cambered plates of the same camber, but different aspect ratios, as shown. From Eiffel wind tunnel studies. Fossati presents polar diagrams that relate coefficients of lift and drag for different angles of attack [8] based on the work of Gustave Eiffel , who pioneered wind tunnel experiments on airfoils, which he published in Among them were studies of cambered plates.

The results shown are for plates of varying camber and aspect ratios, as shown. They also show that, for lower angles of attack, a higher aspect ratio generates more lift and less drag than for lower aspect ratios. If the lift and drag coefficients C L and C D for a sail at a specified angle of attack are known, then the lift L and drag D forces produced can be determined, using the following equations, which vary as the square of apparent wind speed V A : [31] [32].

Garrett demonstrates how those diagrams translate into lift and drag, for a given sail, on different points of sail, in diagrams similar to these: [33]. Reach : Lift more aligned with the direction of travel increases driving force and decreases lateral force. In these diagrams the direction of travel changes with respect to the apparent wind V A , which is constant for the purpose of illustration. In reality, for a constant true wind, apparent wind would vary with point of sail.

Constant V A in these examples means that either V T or V B varies with point of sail; this allows the same polar diagram to be used for comparison with the same conversion of coefficients into units of force in this case Newtons.

In these cases, lift and drag are the same, but the decomposition of total aerodynamic force F T into forward driving force F R and lateral force F LAT vary with point of sail. Forward driving force F R increases, as the direction of travel is more aligned with the wind, and lateral force F LAT decreases.

In addition to the sails used upwind, spinnakers provide area and curvature appropriate for sailing with separated flow on downwind points of sail.

Again, in these diagrams the direction of travel changes with respect to the apparent wind V A , which is constant for the sake of illustration, but would in reality vary with point of sail for a constant true wind. In the left-hand diagram broad reach , the boat is on a point of sail, where the sail can no longer be aligned into the apparent wind to create an optimum angle of attack.

Total aerodynamic force F T has moved away from the maximum lift value. In the right-hand diagram running before the wind , lift is one-fifth of the upwind cases for the same strength apparent wind and drag has almost quadrupled. Spinnaker cross-section trimmed for a broad reach showing transition from boundary layer to separated flow where vortex shedding commences.

A velocity prediction program can translate sail performance and hull characteristics into a polar diagram , depicting boat speed for various windspeeds at each point of sail. Queue a beep pattern - this will cause it to be run strait away if there is nothing else still running. Patterns can also be registered as presets you might do this in setup to make it easy to reuse patterns and simplify playing them back.

Setting the minumum delay between different patterns defaultly or so milliseconds. This will only be noticable if two patterns are queued at the same time Skip to content. Simple timed digital pattern output library for Arduino 1 star 0 forks. Branches Tags. Nothing to show. Go back. Launching Xcode If nothing happens, download Xcode and try again.

Latest commit. Git stats 5 commits. Failed to load latest commit information. View code. Arduino Beep Pattern Installation.

Arduino Beep Pattern Simple library for writing digital on-off patterns to a Arduino digital pin, which could be a buzzer or LED or anything else.

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