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In June , a German named Franz Romer Sea kayak rigged his foot-long foldboat with a sail and departed from Las Palmas in the Canary Islands carrying pounds of tinned food and 55 gallons of water. Fifty-eight days and 2, miles later he reached Saint Thomas, U. Virgin Islands. Another German, Oskar Speck , paddled his foldboat down the Danube and four years later reached the Australian coast after having traveled roughly 14, miles across the Pacific.
With her partner Ken Hutchinson, Hurd won the double canoe race. Lang won the doubles foldboat event with her partner, Alexander "Zee" Grant. He outfitted his foldboat, named Escalante, with a sponson on each side of his boat and filled the boat with beach balls. As with nearly all American foldboat enthusiasts of the day, he did not know how to roll his boat.
Fiberglass mixed with resin composites, invented in the s and 40s, were soon used to make kayaks and this type of watercraft saw increased use during the s, including in the US.
He knew how to roll and only swam once, in Hance Rapid see List of Colorado River rapids and features. Like Grant's foldboat, Kirschbaum's fiberglass kayak had no seat and no thigh braces. Inflatable rubberized fabric boats were first introduced in Europe and Rotomolded plastic kayaks first appeared in Most kayaks today are made from roto-molded polyethylene resins.
The development of plastic and rubberized inflatable kayaks arguably initiated the development of freestyle kayaking as we see it today since these boats could be made smaller, stronger, and more resilient than fiberglass boats. Typically, kayak design is largely a matter of trade-offs: directional stability "tracking" vs maneuverability; stability vs speed; and primary vs secondary stability.
Multihull kayaks face a different set of trade-offs. The paddler's body shape and size is an integral part of the structure, and will also affect the trade-offs made. Attempting to lift and carry a kayak by oneself or improperly is a significant cause of kayaking injuries. If the displacement of a kayak is not enough to support the passenger s and gear, it will sink. If the displacement is excessive, the kayak will float too high, catch the wind and waves uncomfortably, and handle poorly; [16] it will probably also be bigger and heavier and than it needs to be.
Being excessively big will create more drag, and the kayak will move more slowly and take more effort. On the other hand, a higher deck will keep the paddler s dryer and make self-rescue and coming through surf easier. But paddling ease is helped by lower sides where the paddler sits and a narrower width. While the kayak's buoyancy must be more than the loaded kayak, the optimal amount of excess buoyancy varies somewhat with kayak type, purpose, and personal taste [16] squirt boats , for instance, have very little positive buoyancy.
Displacements obviously must also vary greatly with paddler weight. Most manufacturers make kayaks for paddlers weighing 65�85 kg � lb , with some kayaks for paddlers down to 50 kg lb. Oversized kayaks for children mean that they are likely to need to be towed towards the end of a paddle.
Some commercial kayaks are made to fit small adults and children, and a few are built narrower, to fit women see section on stability, below. As a general rule, a longer kayak is faster: it has a higher hull speed.
It can also be narrower for a given displacement, reducing the drag, and it will generally track follow a straight line better than a shorter kayak. On the other hand, it is less maneuverable. Very long kayaks are less robust, and may be harder to store and transport.
Kayaks that are built to cover longer distances such as touring and sea kayaks are longer, generally 16 to 19 feet 4. With touring kayaks the keel is generally more defined helping the kayaker track in a straight line. Whitewater kayaks, which generally depend upon river current for their forward motion, are short, to maximize maneuverability.
These kayaks rarely exceed 8 feet 2. Recreational kayak designers try to provide more stability at the price of reduced speed, and compromise between tracking and maneuverability, ranging from 9�14 feet 2. Length alone does not fully predict a kayak's maneuverability: a second design element is rocker , i. A heavily rockered boat curves more, shortening its effective waterline. For example, an foot 5.
In contrast, the bow and stern of a rockered boat are out of the water, shortening its lengthwise waterline to only 16 ft 4. Rocker is generally most evident at the ends, and in moderation improves handling. Similarly, although a rockered whitewater boat may only be a few feet shorter than a typical recreational kayak, its waterline is far shorter and its maneuverability far greater. When surfing, a heavily rockered boat is less likely to lock into the wave as the bow and stern are still above water.
A boat with less rocker cuts into the wave and makes it harder to turn while surfing. The overall width of a kayak's cross-section is its beam. A wide hull is more stable and packs more displacement into a shorter length.
A narrow hull has less drag and is generally easier to paddle; in waves, it will ride more easily and stay dryer. A narrower kayak makes a somewhat shorter paddle appropriate and a shorter paddle puts less strain on the shoulder joints. Some paddlers are comfortable with a sit-in kayak so narrow that their legs extend fairly straight out.
Others want sufficient width to permit crossing their legs inside the kayak. Primary sometimes called initial stability describes how much a boat tips, or rocks back and forth when displaced from level by paddler weight shifts. Secondary stability describes how stable a kayak feels when put on edge or when waves are passing under the hull perpendicular to the length of the boat. For kayak rolling , tertiary stability, or the stability of an upside-down kayak, is also important lower tertiary stability makes rolling up easier.
Primary stability is often a big concern to a beginner, while secondary stability matters both to beginners and experienced travelers. By example, a wide, flat-bottomed kayak will have high primary stability and feel very stable on flat water. However, when a steep wave breaks on such a boat, it can be easily overturned because the flat bottom is no longer level.
By contrast, a kayak with a narrower, more rounded hull with more hull flare can be edged or leaned into waves and in the hands of a skilled kayaker provides a safer, more comfortable response on stormy seas. Kayaks with only moderate primary, but excellent secondary stability are, in general, considered more seaworthy , especially in challenging conditions.
The shape of the cross section affects stability, maneuverability, and drag. Hull shapes are categorized by roundness, flatness, and by the presence and angle of chines.
This cross-section may vary along the length of the boat. A chine typically increases secondary stability by effectively widening the beam of the boat when it heels tips. A V-shaped hull tends to travel straight track well but makes turning harder. V-shaped hulls also have the greatest secondary stability.
Conversely, flat-bottomed hulls are easy to turn, but harder to direct in a constant direction. A round-bottomed boat has minimal area in contact with the water, and thus minimizes drag; however, it may be so unstable that it will not remain upright when floating empty, and needs continual effort to keep it upright.
In a skin-on-frame kayak, chine placement may be constrained by the need to avoid the bones of the pelvis. Sea kayaks , designed for open water and rough conditions, are generally narrower at 22�25 inches 56�64 cm [ citation needed ] and have more secondary stability than recreational kayaks, which are wider 26�30 inches 66�76 cm , [ citation needed ] have a flatter hull shape, and more primary stability.
The position of the center of gravity is affected by body shape. The lower the CoG, the higher the primary stability. Two different approaches to giving beginners more stability; left, a wider kayak, right, outriggers lashed across the stern deck. The body of the paddler must also be taken into account. A paddler with a low center of gravity will find all boats more stable; for a paddler with a high center of gravity, all boats will feel tippier. On average, women have a lower COG than men. Commercial kayaks made for women are rare.
Newcomers will often want a craft with high primary stability see above. The southern method is a wider kayak. The West Greenland method is a removable pair of outriggers, lashed across the stern deck. If the floats are set so that they are both in the water, they give primary stability, but produce more drag. If they are set so that they are both out of the water when the kayak is balanced, they give secondary stability. Traditional-style and some modern types of kayaks e. Other kayaks offer a different sitting position, in which the paddler's legs are not stretched out in front of them, and the thigh brace bears more on the inside than the top of the thighs see diagram.
A kayaker must be able to move the hull of their kayak by moving their lower body, and brace themselves against the hull mostly with the feet on each stroke. Most kayaks therefore have footrests and a backrest. Some kayaks fit snugly on the hips; others rely more on thigh braces. Mass-produced kayaks generally have adjustable bracing points.
Many paddlers also customize their kayaks by putting in shims of closed-cell foam , or more elaborate structure, to make it fit more tightly. Paddling puts substantial force through the legs, alternately with each stroke. The knees should therefore not be hyperextended.
Separately, if the kneecap is in contact with the boat, or in the knee joint is in torsion , this will cause pain and may injure the knee. Insufficient foot space will cause painful cramping and inefficient paddling. The paddler should generally be in a comfortable position.
Today almost all kayaks are commercial products intended for sale rather than for the builder's personal use. Fiberglass hulls are stiffer than polyethylene hulls, but they are more prone to damage from impact, including cracking. Most modern kayaks have steep V sections at the bow and stern, and a shallow V amidships. Fiberglass kayaks may be "laid-up" in a mold by hand, in which case they are usually more expensive than polyethylene kayaks, which are rotationally molded in a machine. The deck and hull are often made separately and then joined at a horizontal seam.
Plastic kayaks are rotationally molded 'rotomolded' from a various grades and types of polyethylene resins ranging from soft to hard. Such kayaks are seamless and particularly resistant to impact, but heavy. Inflatable kayaks are increasingly popular due to their ease of storage and transport, as well as the ability to be deflated for extended portage.
Although slower than hardshell kayaks, many higher-end models often constructed of hypalon, as opposed to cheaper PVC designs, begin to approach the performance of traditional sea kayaks. Being inflatable they are virtually unsinkable and often more stable than hardshell designs. New drop-stitch technology means slab, rather than tube shapes are used in the designs with higher inflation pressures up to 10psi , leading to considerably faster, though often less stable kayaks which rival hardshell boats in performance.
Solid wooden hulls don't necessarily require significant skill and handiwork, depending on how they are made. Kayaks made from wood sheathed in fiberglass have proven successful, especially as the price of epoxy resin has decreased in recent years.
After cutting out the required pieces of hull and deck kits often have these pre-cut , a series of small holes are drilled along the edges. Copper wire is then used to "stitch" the pieces together through the holes. After the pieces are temporarily stitched together, they are glued with epoxy and the seams reinforced with fiberglass. When the epoxy dries, the copper stitches are removed. Sometimes the entire boat is then covered in fiberglass for additional strength and waterproofing though this adds greatly to the weight and is unnecessary.
Construction is fairly straightforward, but because plywood does not bend to form compound curves, design choices are limited. This is a good choice for the first-time kayak builder as the labor and skills required especially for kit versions is considerably less than for strip-built boats which can take 3 times as long to build. Strip-built designs are similar in shape to rigid fiberglass kayaks but are generally both lighter and tougher. Like their fiberglass counterparts the shape and size of the boat determines performance and optimal uses.
The hull and deck are built with thin strips of lightweight wood, often thuja Western Red cedar , pine or redwood.
The strips are edge-glued together around a form, stapled or clamped in place, and allowed to dry. Structural strength comes from a layer of fiberglass cloth and epoxy resin, layered inside and outside the hull. The classic rule is to add a boat length of chain, which does two things: it protects the nylon line from chafe caused by seabed rocks and debris, and the chain's weight keeps the angle of pull on the anchor parallel to the bottom.
But even a short length, like coated ACCO chain, will make a big improvement in anchor performance and the longevity of the system. Small galvanized shackles connect the anchor to the length of chain, and attach the chain to the thimble on the anchor line. This system, with a long length of three-strand nylon line, a moderate length of chain and a properly sized anchor will satisfy the needs of the majority of boaters, with boats up to the 30' size range.
If you own a boat over 40' of length and cruise to lots of different anchorages with a variety of seabed types, you should consider an all-chain anchor rode. There's nothing like the feeling of security provided by the strength and abrasion resistance of chain for open-water and heavy-weather anchorages.
The negative side of chain is its weight. Since boats require ' or more of chain for an all-chain rode, and since chain is very heavy, all that chain adds up to a bunch of weight in the bow of a boat. That's why many boaters and especially sailboat owners with big and lightweight boats choose higher-strength Grade 43 or Grade 70 chain. Matching anchor chain to a specific vessel can be challenging, since the windage of the vessel is probably the key selection factor, and windage is hard to determine.
You might want to consult a naval architect or marine surveyor for advice on how to size ground tackle on boats over 60' or so. Our West Advisor articles have suggestions on how to size this gear on boats up to about 60' or 70'. Determining the length of anchor chain is based on the maximum water depth and the freeboard of the vessel, but since chain is so heavy, generally you can plan on using scope.
And, due to the weight of the chain, you actually need less scope as the water depth increases. Many boats will use �' of chain. Others may use ' of chain and then bend on another ' of line for extremely deep anchorages. Regardless of whether you use nylon rode, it's extremely important that boats with chain rode have some nylon at the bitter end so that the anchor rode can be cut in an emergency.
In general the load on an anchor line varies with the square of the LOA of the boat. A high windage, heavy displacement boat such as a trawler or fishing boat will require heavier anchor rode than an ultra-light racing sailboat of the same LOA. As a general guide, for winds up to 30 knots, we recommend the following anchor line and chain diameters, using three-strand, high quality line. This table assumes an working load ratio.
In inland, coastal, and performance cruising applications, boaters should use a combination of nylon line and galvanized chain. For serious cruisers, all-chain rode may be a better solution. Fish were central to the culture of the region's natives, both as sustenance and as part of their religious beliefs.
Celilo Falls , located east of the modern city of The Dalles, was a vital hub for trade and the interaction of different cultural groups, [55] being used for fishing and trading for 11, years. Prior to contact with westerners, villages along this 9-mile 14 km stretch may have at times had a population as great as 10, In prehistoric times the Columbia's salmon and steelhead runs numbered an estimated annual average of 10 to 16 million fish. In comparison, the largest run since was in , with 3.
Salmon canneries established by white settlers beginning in had a strong negative impact on the salmon population, and in US President Theodore Roosevelt observed that the salmon runs were but a fraction of what they had been 25 years prior.
As river development continued in the 20th century, each of these major fishing sites was flooded by a dam, beginning with Cascades Rapids in The development was accompanied by extensive negotiations between natives and US government agencies.
The Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs, a coalition of various tribes, adopted a constitution and incorporated after the completion of the Bonneville Dam flooded Cascades Rapids; [71] Still, in the s, there were natives who lived along the river and fished year round, moving along with the fish's migration patterns throughout the seasons.
In Celilo Falls was submerged by the construction of The Dalles Dam, and the native fishing community was displaced. Some historians believe that Japanese or Chinese vessels blown off course reached the Northwest Coast long before Europeans�possibly as early as BCE. Historian Derek Hayes claims that "It is a near certainty that Japanese or Chinese people arrived on the northwest coast long before any European.
Evidence exists that Spanish castaways reached the shore in and traded with the Clatsop ; if these were the first Europeans to see the Columbia, they failed to send word home to Spain. In the 18th century, there was strong interest in discovering a Northwest Passage that would permit navigation between the Atlantic or inland North America and the Pacific Ocean.
Many ships in the area, especially those under Spanish and British command, searched the northwest coast for a large river that might connect to Hudson Bay or the Missouri River. The first documented European discovery of the Columbia River was that of Bruno de Heceta , who in sighted the river's mouth. On the advice of his officers, he did not explore it, as he was short-staffed and the current was strong. What happened next would form the basis for decades of both cooperation and dispute between British and American exploration of, and ownership claim to, the region.
Royal Navy commander George Vancouver sailed past the mouth in April and observed a change in the water's color, but he accepted Meares' report and continued on his journey northward. Gray reported that he had seen the entrance to the Columbia and had spent nine days trying but failing to enter. On May 12, , Gray returned south and crossed the Columbia Bar, becoming the first known explorer of European descent to enter the river. Gray's fur trading mission had been financed by Boston merchants, who outfitted him with a private vessel named Columbia Rediviva ; he named the river after the ship on May The farthest point reached was Grays Bay at the mouth of Grays River.
Broughton got as far as the Sandy River at the western end of the Columbia River Gorge, about miles km upstream, sighting and naming Mount Hood. Broughton formally claimed the river, its drainage basin , and the nearby coast for Britain. In contrast, Gray had not made any formal claims on behalf of the United States.
Because the Columbia was at the same latitude as the headwaters of the Missouri River, there was some speculation that Gray and Vancouver had discovered the long-sought Northwest Passage.
A British map showed a dotted line connecting the Columbia with the Missouri. They explored a few miles upriver, as far as Bateman Island , before heading down the Columbia, concluding their journey at the river's mouth and establishing Fort Clatsop , a short-lived establishment Inexpensive New Fishing Boats 70 that was occupied for less than three months. Over the next few years he explored much of the river and its northern tributaries.
On his return to the north, Thompson explored the one remaining part of the river he had not yet seen, becoming the first Euro-descended person to travel the entire length of the river.
Chief Factor John McLoughlin , a physician who had been in the fur trade since , was appointed superintendent of the Columbia District. For many the final leg of the journey involved travel down the lower Columbia River to Fort Vancouver. This prompted the construction of the Barlow Road.
In the Treaty of the United States and Britain agreed that both nations were to enjoy equal rights in Oregon Country for 10 years. By , when the so-called "joint occupation" was renewed for an indefinite period, it seemed probable that the lower Columbia River would in time become the border between the two nations.
For years the Hudson's Bay Company successfully maintained control of the Columbia River and American attempts to gain a foothold were fended off. In the s, American religious missions were established at several locations in the lower Columbia River region. In the s a mass migration of American settlers undermined British control. The Hudson's Bay Company tried to maintain dominance by shifting from the fur trade, which was in decline, to exporting other goods such as salmon and lumber.
Colonization schemes were attempted, but failed to match the scale of American settlement. Americans generally settled south of the Columbia, mainly in the Willamette Valley.
The Hudson's Bay Company tried to establish settlements north of the river, but nearly all the British colonists moved south to the Willamette Valley. The hope that the British colonists might dilute the American presence in the valley failed in the face of the overwhelming number of American settlers. These developments rekindled the issue of "joint occupation" and the boundary dispute. While some British interests, especially the Hudson's Bay Company, fought for a boundary along the Columbia River, the Oregon Treaty of set the boundary at the 49th parallel.
As part of the treaty, the British retained all areas north of the line while the U. The Columbia River became much of the border between the U. By the turn of the 20th century, the difficulty of navigating the Columbia was seen as an impediment to the economic development of the Inland Empire region east of the Cascades.
American captain Robert Gray and British captain George Vancouver, who explored the river in , proved that it was possible to cross the Columbia Bar. Many of the challenges associated with that feat remain today; even with modern engineering alterations to the mouth of the river, the strong currents and shifting sandbar make it dangerous to pass between the river and the Pacific Ocean.
The use of steamboats along the river, beginning with the British Beaver in [91] and followed by American vessels in , [92] contributed to the rapid settlement and economic development of the region. The boats, initially powered by burning wood, carried passengers and freight throughout the region for many years. Early railroads served to connect steamboat lines interrupted by waterfalls on the river's lower reaches.
As early as , industrialists proposed altering the natural channel of the Columbia to improve navigation. Today, ocean freighters can travel upriver as far as Portland and Vancouver, and barges can reach as far inland as Lewiston, Idaho. The shifting Columbia Bar makes passage between the river and the Pacific Ocean difficult and dangerous, and numerous rapids along the river hinder navigation. Pacific Graveyard, a book by James A.
Gibbs , describes the many shipwrecks near the mouth of the Columbia. Strong currents and the shifting sandbar remain a threat to ships entering the river and necessitate continuous maintenance of the jetties. In the Columbia was dredged to enhance shipping.
The channel between the ocean and Portland and Vancouver was deepened from 17 feet 5. The Columbian called for the channel to be deepened to 40 feet 12 m as early as , but that depth was not attained until Cascade Locks and Canal were first constructed in around the Cascades Rapids, [99] enabling boats to travel safely through the Columbia River Gorge.
An extensive system of locks allowed ships and barges to pass easily from one reservoir to the next. A navigation channel reaching to Lewiston, Idaho , along the Columbia and Snake rivers, was completed in The eruption of Mount St. Helens caused mudslides in the area, which reduced the Columbia's depth by 25 feet 7.
Efforts to maintain and improve the navigation channel have continued to the present day. In a new round of studies examined the possibility of further dredging on the lower Columbia. The plans were controversial from the start because of economic and environmental concerns. In , Congress authorized deepening the channel between Portland and Astoria from 40 to 43 feet 12�13 m , which will make it possible for large container and grain ships to reach Portland and Vancouver.
Circuit Court of Appeals in August Work on the project began in and concluded in In , the United States Bureau of Reclamation was established to aid in the economic development of arid western states. Irrigation efforts resumed after the war. This prompted agencies to conduct the first formal financial analysis of hydroelectric development; the reports produced by various agencies were presented in House Document Those reports, and subsequent related reports, are referred to as Reports.
In the late s, political forces in the Northwestern United States generally favored private development of hydroelectric dams along the Columbia. But the overwhelming victories of gubernatorial candidate George W. Joseph in the Republican primary , and later his law partner Julius Meier , were understood to demonstrate strong public support for public ownership of dams.
Roosevelt signed a bill that enabled the construction of the Bonneville and Grand Coulee dams as public works projects.
In floods swept through the Columbia watershed, destroying Vanport , then the second largest city in Oregon, and impacting cities as far north as Trail, British Columbia. By that time local communities had become wary of federal hydroelectric projects, and sought local control of new developments; a public utility district in Grant County, Washington , ultimately began construction of the dam at Priest Rapids.
In the s, the United States and Canada signed the Columbia River Treaty , which focused on flood control and the maximization of downstream power generation. Today the main stem of the Columbia River has 14 dams, of which three are in Canada and 11 in the US. Four mainstem dams and four lower Snake River dams contain navigation locks to allow ship and barge passage from the ocean as far as Lewiston, Idaho. The river system as a whole has more than dams for hydroelectricity and irrigation.
Timothy Egan , in The Good Rain []. The larger US dams are owned and operated by the federal government some by the Army Corps of Engineers and some by the Bureau of Reclamation , while the smaller dams are operated by public utility districts, and private power companies. The federally operated system is known as the Federal Columbia River Power System , which includes 31 dams on the Columbia and its tributaries. The system has altered the seasonal flow of the river in order to meet higher electricity demands during the winter.
At the beginning of the 20th century, roughly 75 percent of the Columbia's flow occurred in the summer, between April and September. By , the summer proportion had been lowered to about 50 percent, essentially eliminating the seasonal pattern. The installation of dams dramatically altered the landscape and ecosystem of the river. At one time, the Columbia was one of the top salmon -producing river systems in the world.
Chief Joseph Dam has no fish ladders and completely blocks fish migration to the upper half of the Columbia River system. The Bureau of Reclamation 's Columbia Basin Project focused on the generally dry region of central Washington known as the Columbia Basin, which features rich loess soil. Roosevelt authorized the Columbia Basin Project. The Grand Coulee Dam was the project's central component; upon completion, it pumped water up from the Columbia to fill the formerly dry Grand Coulee, forming Banks Lake.
By , the intended height of the dam was increased from a range between and feet 61 and 91 m to feet m , a height that would extend the lake impounded by the dam all the way to the Canada�US border; the project had grown from a local New Deal relief measure to a major national project. The project's initial purpose was irrigation, but the onset of World War II created a high demand for electricity, mainly for aluminum production and for the development of nuclear weapons at the Hanford Site.
Irrigation began in Important crops include orchard fruit, potatoes, alfalfa , mint , beans , beets , and wine grapes. Since , the Columbia has experienced six multi-year droughts. Scientists have expressed concern that a similar drought would have grave consequences in a region so dependent on the Columbia. Many farmers in central Washington build dams on their property for irrigation and to control frost on their crops.
The Washington Department of Ecology, using new techniques involving aerial photographs, estimated there may be as many as a hundred such dams in the area, most of which are illegal. Six such dams have failed in recent years, causing hundreds of thousands of dollars of damage to crops and public roads. Fourteen farms in the area have gone through the permitting process to build such dams legally. The Columbia's heavy flow and large elevation drop over a short distance, 2.
In comparison, the Mississippi drops less than 0. The Columbia alone possesses one-third of the United States's hydroelectric potential. Inexpensive hydropower supported the location of a large aluminum industry in the region, because its reduction from bauxite requires large amounts of electricity. Until , the Northwestern United States produced up to 17 percent of the world's aluminum and 40 percent of the aluminum produced in the United States.
Power remains relatively inexpensive along the Columbia, and since the mid several global enterprises have moved server farm operations into the area to avail themselves of cheap power.
Army Corps of Engineers , and various Washington public utility districts to ensure flow, flood control, and power generation objectives are met. Increasingly, hydro-power operations are required to meet standards under the US Endangered Species Act and other agreements to manage operations to minimize impacts on salmon and other fish, and some conservation and fishing groups support removing four dams on the lower Snake River, the largest tributary of the Columbia.
In , the BPA hired Oklahoma folksinger Woody Guthrie to write songs for a documentary film [] promoting the benefits of hydropower. In the month he spent traveling the region Guthrie wrote 26 songs , which have become an important part of the cultural history of the region. The Columbia supports several species of anadromous fish that migrate between the Pacific Ocean and fresh water tributaries of the river. Sockeye salmon , Coho and Chinook also known as "king" salmon, and steelhead , all of the genus Oncorhynchus , are ocean fish that migrate up the rivers at the end of their life cycles to spawn.
Salmon populations declined dramatically after the establishment of canneries in In it was reported that , salmon, with an average weight of 22 pounds A can weighing 1 pound 0.
In that year, the people of Oregon passed two laws under their newly instituted program of citizens' initiatives limiting fishing on the Columbia and other rivers. Dams interrupt the migration of anadromous fish. Salmon and steelhead return to the streams in which they were born to spawn; where dams prevent their return, entire populations of salmon die.
Some of the Columbia and Snake River dams employ fish ladders, which are effective to varying degrees at allowing these fish to travel upstream. Another problem exists for the juvenile salmon headed downstream to the ocean. Previously, this journey would have taken two to three weeks.
With river currents slowed by the dams, and the Columbia converted from wild river to a series of slackwater pools, the journey can take several months, which increases the mortality rate. The Chief Joseph Dam and several dams on the Columbia's tributaries entirely block migration, and there are no migrating fish on the river above these dams.
Sturgeon have different migration habits and can survive without ever visiting the ocean. In many upstream areas cut off from the ocean by dams, sturgeon simply live upstream of the dam.
Not all fish have suffered from the modifications to the river; the northern pikeminnow formerly known as the squawfish thrives in the warmer, slower water created by the dams. Research in the mids found that juvenile salmon were suffering substantially from the predatory pikeminnow, [] and in , in the interest of protecting salmon, a "bounty" program was established to reward anglers for catching pikeminnow. In , the salmon catch was smaller than usual in the rivers of Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, causing concern among commercial fishermen, government agencies, and tribal leaders.
Also in , United States Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt first proposed the removal of several Pacific Northwest dams because of their impact on salmon spawning. Of the major dams in the Columbia River drainage basin, the four Washington dams on the lower Snake River are often identified for removal, [] for example in an ongoing lawsuit concerning a Bush administration plan for salmon recovery.
In , the destruction of the Marmot Dam on the Sandy River was the first dam removal in the system. In southeastern Washington, a mile 80 km stretch of the river passes through the Hanford Site , established in as part of the Manhattan Project.
The site served as a plutonium production complex, with nine nuclear reactors and related facilities along the banks of the river. From to , pump systems drew cooling water from the river and, after treating this water for use by the reactors, returned it to the river. Before being released back into the river, the used water was held in large tanks known as retention basins for up to six hours. Longer-lived isotopes were not affected by this retention, and several terabecquerels entered the river every day.
By , the eight plutonium production reactors at Hanford dumped a daily average of 50, curies of radioactive material into the Columbia. The nuclear reactors were decommissioned at the end of the Cold War , and the Hanford site is the focus of one of the world's largest environmental cleanup , managed by the Department of Energy under the oversight of the Washington Department of Ecology and the Environmental Protection Agency.
This waste is expected to reach the river in 12 to 50 years if cleanup does not proceed on schedule. In addition to concerns about nuclear waste, numerous other pollutants are found in the river. These include chemical pesticides, bacteria, arsenic, dioxins , and polychlorinated biphenyls PCB. Studies have also found significant levels of toxins in fish and the waters they inhabit within the basin. Accumulation of toxins in fish threatens the survival of fish species, and human consumption of these fish can lead to health problems.
Water quality is also an important factor in the survival of other wildlife and plants that grow in the Columbia River drainage basin. The states, Indian tribes, and federal government are all engaged in efforts to restore and improve the water, land, and air quality of the Columbia River drainage basin and have committed to work together to enhance and accomplish critical ecosystem restoration efforts.
A number of cleanup efforts are currently underway, including Superfund projects at Portland Harbor, Hanford, and Lake Roosevelt. Timber industry activity further contaminates river water, for example in the increased sediment runoff that results from clearcuts. The Northwest Forest Plan , a piece of federal legislation from , mandated that timber companies consider the environmental impacts of their practices on rivers like the Columbia.
On July 1, , Christopher Swain of Portland, Oregon, became the first person to swim the Columbia River's entire length, in an effort to raise public awareness about the river's environmental health.
Both natural and anthropogenic processes are involved in the cycling of nutrients in the Columbia River basin. Natural processes in the system include estuarine mixing of fresh and ocean waters, and climate variability patterns such as the Pacific Decadal Oscillation and the El Nino Southern Oscillation both climatic cycles that affect the amount of regional snowpack and river discharge.
Major anthropogenic impacts to nutrients in the basin are due to fertilizers from agriculture, sewage systems, logging , and the construction of dams. Nutrients dynamics vary in the river basin from the headwaters to the main river and dams, to finally reaching the Columbia River estuary and ocean. Upstream in the headwaters, salmon runs are the main source of nutrients.
Most of the Columbia's drainage basin which, at , square miles or , square kilometres, is about the size of France [] lies roughly between the Rocky Mountains on the east and the Cascade Mountains on the west.
In the United States and Canada the term watershed is often used to mean drainage basin. The term Columbia Basin is used to refer not only to the entire drainage basin but also to subsets of the river's full watershed, such as the relatively flat and unforested area in eastern Washington bounded by the Cascades, the Rocky Mountains, and the Blue Mountains. Vegetation varies widely, ranging from western hemlock and western redcedar in the moist regions to sagebrush in the arid regions.
The Columbia Glaciated ecoregion, making up about a third of the total watershed, lies in the north and was covered with ice sheets during the Pleistocene. The effects of glaciation include a number of large lakes and a relatively low diversity of freshwater fish. The Upper Snake ecoregion is defined as the Snake River watershed above Shoshone Falls , which totally blocks fish migration.
This region has 14 species of fish, many of which are endemic. The Columbia Unglaciated ecoregion makes up the rest of the watershed. Of the three ecoregions it is the richest in terms of freshwater species diversity. There are 35 species of fish, of which four are endemic. There are also high levels of mollusk endemism. In , over eight million people lived within the Columbia's drainage basin.
Of this total about 3. Population in the watershed has been rising for many decades and is projected to rise to about 10 million by The highest population densities are found west of the Cascade Mountains along the I-5 corridor, especially in the Portland-Vancouver urban area. High densities are also found around Spokane, Washington , and Boise, Idaho. Although much of the watershed is rural and sparsely populated, areas with recreational and scenic values are growing rapidly.
The central Oregon county of Deschutes is the fastest-growing in the state. Populations have also been growing just east of the Cascades in central Washington around the city of Yakima and the Tri-Cities area. Projections for the coming decades assume growth throughout the watershed, including the interior. The Canadian part of the Okanagan subbasin is also growing rapidly. Climate varies greatly from place to place within the watershed.
Elevation ranges from sea level at the river mouth to more than 14, feet 4, m in the mountains, and temperatures vary with elevation. The highest peak is Mount Rainier , at 14, feet 4, m. High elevations have cold winters and short cool summers; interior regions are subject to great temperature variability and severe droughts.
Over some of the watershed, especially west of the Cascade Mountains, precipitation maximums occur in winter, when Pacific storms come ashore. Atmospheric conditions block the flow of moisture in summer, which is generally dry except for occasional thunderstorms in the interior. Much of the watershed gets less than 12 inches 30 cm a year. Several major North American drainage basins and many minor ones share a common border with the Columbia River's drainage basin.
To the east, in northern Wyoming and Montana, the Continental Divide separates the Columbia watershed from the Mississippi-Missouri watershed, which empties into the Gulf of Mexico.
To the northeast, mostly along the southern border between British Columbia and Alberta , the Continental Divide separates the Columbia watershed from the Nelson - Lake Winnipeg - Saskatchewan watershed, which empties into Hudson Bay. Further north along the Continental Divide, a short portion of the combined Continental and Laurentian divides separate the Columbia watershed from the MacKenzie - Slave - Athabasca watershed, which empties into the Arctic Ocean. The Nelson and Mackenzie watersheds are separated by a divide between streams flowing to the Arctic Ocean and those of the Hudson Bay watershed.
To the southeast, in western Wyoming, another divide separates the Columbia watershed from the Colorado � Green watershed, which empties into the Gulf of California. To the west and southwest the Columbia watershed borders a number of smaller watersheds that drain to the Pacific Ocean, such as the Klamath River in Oregon and California and the Puget Sound Basin in Washington.
The Columbia receives more than 60 significant tributaries. The four largest that empty directly into the Columbia measured either by discharge or by size of watershed are the Snake River mostly in Idaho , the Willamette River in northwest Oregon , the Kootenay River mostly in British Columbia , and the Pend Oreille River mostly in northern Washington and Idaho, also known as the lower part of the Clark Fork.
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