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Paul and West St. Paul to declare a state of emergency. Flooding from the ice jam necessitated the evacuation of about thirty homes. Dominion City was the first town in Manitoba to declare a state of emergency on Monday, March Forty homes north of Winnipeg were evacuated, while dozens of homes were flooded due to ice jams. There were three million sandbags, rolls of poly film Hesco bastion flood walls , and water pumps sent out by the U.

Army Corps of Engineers to North Dakota. The ice was then coated with road salt to hasten melting. The Army Corps of Engineers also resorted to using sand, salt, chemicals and drilling to alleviate the ice jams. To set the dynamite, holes need to be drilled in the ice, which would require someone to hang suspended from a helicopter. The end result of dynamite forms a hole centrally in the ice without loosening up the ice jam blockage to allow water to flow past.

These tubes take 10 minutes to fill up and provide the same protection as sandbags. Dikes were placed along the shoreline within the city to protect neighbourhoods against ice jam flooding. Over 1, volunteers came out since April 1 to assist with creating sandbag dikes which were built Frozen culverts and sewer inlets were cleared to allow runoff from meltwaters and floodwaters.

Amphibex excavator icebreakers were at work breaking up ice flows on the Red River. Officials examined past ice jams and provided contingency plans if the Floodway jammed upstream of bridges or on tight corners.

On Easter Sunday, April 12, Winnipeg was clear of ice blocks and ice jams. Andrews and St. Clements were given evacuation alerts on Good Friday. Some chose to remain behind, and rescue efforts commenced for them over the Easter week-end.

Structural adaptations to the river channel or the placement of dams and ice booms would control where ice jams would form. Hairpin curves and bridges are problem areas for the jamming of ice. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. November The Red River around Fargo before the floods started, as seen from space. Main article: North Dakota floods.

Manitoba residents receive evacuation flood alerts Fargo, North Dakota, prepares for record flooding. Volunteers and food needed for flooded Manitoba, Canada.

Manitoba volunteers go to war against Red River flooding. Manitoba's flood creating hazardous conditions. March 29, National Public Radio. Archived from the original on 31 March Retrieved 29 March Taped interview. Retrieved Minnesota Public Radio. CBC News. March 17, The Associated Press. Star Tribune. Archived from the original on March 29, The Forum of Fargo-Moorhead.

March 10, Governor of North Dakota. March 16, Winnipeg Free Press. March 20, Grand Forks Herald. March 22, March 23, Dakota braces for record deluge".

Fargo Forum. Archived from the original on March 31, Archived from the original on February 16, May 11, Archived from the original on 13 April CBC news. April 23, Archived from the original on 27 April April 24, Archived from the original on 16 April Calgary Herald. Leader Post. April 14, Archived from the original on April 17, Archived from the original on 25 April Sun Media.

Archived from the original on 19 April April 18, CTV News. April 19, Archived from the original on April 21, April 20, The Canadian Press. Globe and mail.

Archived from the original on 22 April March 26, Archived from the original on April 16, The Star Phoenix. Therefore DBDs are a relevant tool in current plasma technology as well as an object for fundamental studies. Another motivation for further research is the fact that so-called partial discharges in insulated high voltage systems are special types of DBDs. The breakdown processes, the formation of structures, and the role of surface processes are currently under investigation.

This review is intended to give an update to the already existing literature on DBDs considering the research and development within the last two decades. The main principles and different modes of discharge generation are summarized. A collection of known as well as special electrode configurations and reactor designs will be presented. This shall demonstrate the different and broad possibilities, but also the similarities and common aspects of devices for different fields of applications explored within the last years.

The main part is devoted to the progress on the investigation of different aspects of breakdown and plasma formation with the focus on single filaments or microdischarges.

This includes a summary of the current knowledge on the electrical characterization of filamentary DBDs. In particular, the recent new insights on the elementary volume and surface memory mechanisms in these discharges will be discussed.

An outlook for the forthcoming challenges on research and development will be given. The pulsed-Townsend PT experiment is a well known swarm technique used to measure transport properties from a current in an external circuit, the analysis of which is based on the governing equation of continuity. In this paper, the Brambring representation Z. We present a re-analysis of the PT experiment in terms of the standard diffusion equation which has firm kinetic theory foundations, furnishing an expression for the current measured by the PT experiment in terms of the universal bulk transport coefficients net ionisation rate, bulk drift velocity and bulk longitudinal diffusion coefficient.

Furthermore, a relationship between the transport properties previously extracted from the PT experiment using the Brambring representation, and the universal bulk transport coefficients is presented. The validity of the relationship is tested for two gases Ar and SF 6 , highlighting also estimates of the differences.

Laser-produced transient tin plasmas are the sources of extreme ultraviolet EUV light at Generating the required EUV light at sufficient power, reliability, and stability presents a formidable multi-faceted task, combining industrial innovations with attractive scientific questions. This topical review presents a contemporary overview of the status of the field, discussing the key processes that govern the dynamics in each step in the process of generating EUV light.

The emission of the Fulcher- transition is well-known for providing access to the rovibrational population of the hydrogen molecule in low temperature plasmas by means of optical emission spectroscopy. A revised comprehensive approach is developed for the evaluation that omits several simplifying assumptions, which are often made. The rovibrational distribution is directly calculated in the state considering the typically observed hockey-stick population. The obtained steady-state population is fitted to the experimentally measured one via varying the population parameters in the electronic ground state.

The impact of this evaluation routine compared to the simplified ones is demonstrated both for H 2 and D 2 at two experiments: a standard CW low-power laboratory ICP and the pulsed high-power negative ion source plasma of the Linac4 accelerator at CERN.

This assessment demonstrates that especially the simplification of measuring only the first five rotational emission lines i. Discharge with an external magnetic field is promising for various applications of low-temperature plasmas from electric propulsion to semiconductor processes owing to high plasma density. It is essential to understand plasma transport across the magnetic field because plasma confinement under the field is based on Boat Upstream And Downstream Problems For Pdf strong magnetization of light electrons, maintaining quasi-neutrality through the inertial response of unmagnetized ions.

In such a partially magnetized plasma, different degrees of magnetization between electrons and ions can create instability and make the confinement and transport mechanisms more complex.

Theoretical studies have suggested a link between the instability of various frequency ranges and plasma confinement, whereas experimental work has not been done so far. Here, we experimentally study the magnetic confinement properties of a partially magnetized plasma considering instability.

The plasma properties show non-uniform characteristics as the magnetic field increases, indicating enhanced magnetic confinement. However, the strengthened electric field at the edge of the plasma column gives rise to the Simon�Hoh instability, limiting the plasma confinement. The variation of the edge-to-center plasma density ratio h -factor with the magnetic field clearly reveals the transition of the transport regime through triggering of the instability.

Eventually, the h -factor reaches an asymptotic value, indicating saturation of magnetic confinement. Sander Nijdam et al Plasma Sources Sci. In this review we describe a transient type of gas discharge which is commonly called a streamer discharge, as well as a few related phenomena in pulsed discharges.

Streamers are the precursors of other discharges like sparks and lightning, but they also occur in for example corona reactors or plasma jets which are used for a variety of plasma chemical purposes. When enough space is available, streamers can also form at much lower pressures, like in the case of sprite discharges high up in the atmosphere.

We explain the structure and basic underlying physics of streamer discharges, and how they scale with gas density. We discuss the chemistry and applications of streamers, and describe their two main stages in detail: inception and propagation.

We also look at some other topics, like interaction with flow and heat, related pulsed discharges, and electron runaway and high energy radiation. Finally, we discuss streamer simulations and diagnostics in quite some detail. This review is written with two purposes in mind: first, we describe recent results on the physics of streamer discharges, with a focus on the work performed in our groups. We also describe recent developments in diagnostics and simulations of streamers.

Second, we provide background information on the above-mentioned aspects of streamers. This review can therefore be used as a tutorial by researchers starting to work in the field of streamer physics. Patrick Dietz et al Plasma Sources Sci. There is no ideal atomic propellant for ion thrusters. Xenon commonly used as propellant becomes resource-critical in light of electric propulsion commercialization.

Combining these considerations leads to seeking alternatives to xenon as propellant. In this review, we summarize the current literature on molecular propellants. We define two classes of molecules, group I and II, comprising diatomic molecules and more complex molecules, respectively. We identify basic properties which a candidate molecule belonging to either group, I or II, should possess in order to be suitable as molecular propellant. We discuss the pits and traps in testing such candidate molecules inside a thruster on the basis of our experiences with iodine a member of group I and adamantane a member of group II.

The thruster system needs to be individually adopted for each propellant candidate in order to enable a thorough testing inside the thruster. These circumstances make such testing time-consuming and costly. To accelerate systematic screening of the vast number of molecular species in terms of suitability as propellant, we propose a screening and evolution procedure based on combining chemical engineering and fundamental physical measurements.

T Huiskamp Plasma Sources Sci. Streamer discharges generated by nanosecond high-voltage pulses have gained attraction for a variety of reasons, but mainly because they are very efficient for a number of plasma-processing applications. More specifically, researchers have noted that the pulse duration and the rise time of the applied high-voltage pulse have a significant influence on the radical yield of the transient plasmas generated with these pulses; shorter pulses result in higher yields.

With the need to study transient plasmas generated by these short pulses comes the need to understand how to generate those pulses and to understand the interaction between the pulse source and the discharge. In this topical review, we will explore the different methods with which to generate nanosecond high-voltage pulses, how the interaction between the pulse source and the discharge may influence the source and the discharge and how to optimize the energy transfer from the pulse source to the discharge.

Plasma�liquid interactions represent a growing interdisciplinary area of research involving plasma science, fluid dynamics, heat and mass transfer, photolysis, multiphase chemistry and aerosol science.

This review provides an assessment of the state-of-the-art of this multidisciplinary area and identifies the key research challenges. The developments in diagnostics, modeling and further extensions of cross section and reaction rate databases that are necessary to address these challenges are discussed. The review focusses on non-equilibrium plasmas. A Kanitz et al Plasma Sources Sci. Laser ablation in liquid-phase LAL has been developed since the s, but the interest in laser synthesis of colloids has emerged in the last decade due to a significant improvement in the production rate, proven comparative advantages in biomedical and catalysis applications, and recent commercialization.

However, the method relies on highly transient phenomena, so that the fundamental understanding lacks behind the LAL synthesis refinement research. The complexity of the physics and chemistry involved has led to experimental and theoretical investigations that attempt to provide a basic description of the underlying processes but face the challenge of temporal and spatial resolution as well as non-equilibrium conditions.

It appears that the processes occurring at the early time scales, ranging from femtoseconds to several microseconds are critical in the definition of the final product. The review is mainly dedicated to the comprehensive description of the processes occurring at early time scales, which include the description of laser-matter interaction for ultrashort and short laser pulses, plasma formation processes as well as comparison of the measured plasma parameters at these time scales, and subsequent description of the cavitation bubble dynamics.

Furthermore, the plasma and cavitation bubble chemistry are addressed, and their impact on the nanoparticle formation is emphasized. The input power of a CO 2 microwave plasma is modulated at kHz rate in scans of duty cycle at constant average power to investigate gas heating dynamics and its relation to dissociation efficiency.

Rotational temperature profiles obtained from rotational Raman scattering reveal peak temperatures of up to , while the edge temperature remains cold Fast optical imaging monitors plasma volume variations and shows that power density scales with peak power. As Upstream Downstream Problems With Solutions English dissociation scales with observed peak rotational temperature, it is concluded that thermal processes dominate. A simple 0D model is constructed which explains how higher power density favors dissociation over radial energy transport.

Cheng Zhang et al Plasma Sources Sci. Pulsed plasma actuators are used for an active flow control application since the s. In this paper, we discuss shock wave and vortex characteristics in pulsed plasma actuators after an introduction of research progress on atmospheric-pressure discharge plasma actuators. First, the shock wave characteristics in surface dielectric barrier discharge SDBD actuator operating in diffuse-like and multi-streamer modes are discussed. Improved plasma actuators, such as the three-electrode SDBD actuator and the plasma synthetic jet actuator have the enhanced shock wave characteristics.

Second, in order to investigate the effects of pulse parameters on the shock wave characteristics in nanosecond-pulse SDBD actuator, a particle image velocimetry system is used to capture the formation of starting vortexes at different pulse rise times, pulse durations, and pulse repetition frequencies PRFs. It is shown that the velocity of a starting vortex significantly increases when the pulse rise time decreases from ns to 50 ns due Upstream And Downstream Problems With Solution Pdf Windows to a more significant hydrodynamic effect generated during a shorter rise time.

It is also shown that the velocity of a starting vortex increases and its active area enlarges when the PRF increases.

The recombination of O 3 P atoms on the surface of a Pyrex tube containing a DC glow discharge in pure O 2 was studied over a wide range of pressure 0. The temperature of the atoms incident at the surface was deduced from a model, calibrated by measurements of the spatially-averaged gas temperature and validated by radial temperature profile measurements. At the higher surface temperature the activation energy is the same, but the pre-exponential factor is smaller.

These results are well explained by an Eley�Rideal ER mechanism with incident O atoms recombining with both chemisorbed and more weakly bonded physisorbed atoms on the surface, with the kinetic energy of the incident atoms providing the energy to overcome the activation energy barrier. A phenomenological ER model is proposed that explains both the decrease in recombination probability with surface temperature as well as the deviations from the Arrhenius law when the O flux is low.

At pressures below 0. We attribute this effect to incident ions and fast neutrals arriving with sufficient energy to clean or chemically modify the surface, generating new adsorption sites.

In this paper, we discuss the results from the computational investigation of the effect of a metal grounded target, metal target at a floating potential and dielectric targets conductive and non-conductive on the plasma bullet propagation and reflection. We show that the intensity of the primary ionization wave IW is the highest for the metal target, while it is significantly lower for the non-conductive dielectric.

For the conductive dielectric, the wave intensity is greater than that for the non-conductive dielectrics, but lower than for a metal target. After the primarily forward IW touches the target, the reflected waves are observed for all the targets under investigation.

For a metal target the reflected IW changes its direction and transforms into the secondary forward wave. We did not observe secondary forward IWs for dielectric targets. For dielectric targets, the reflected waves gradually decayed without changing their direction. Francis Labelle et al Plasma Sources Sci. This work examines the rotational�translational equilibrium in non-thermal, argon-based plasmas at atmospheric pressure.

In particular, rotational temperatures T rot and neutral gas temperatures T g are compared along the axis of plasma columns sustained by either radiofrequency RF or microwave MW electromagnetic fields. T g values are also deduced from the line broadening of selected Ar emission lines using an hyperfine spectrometer. Such departure from the rotational�translational equilibrium in both plasmas is ascribed to the influence of electrons competing with neutrals to impose their own temperature on the distribution of rotational levels of both ground and excited states.

Bocong Zheng et al Plasma Sources Sci. We demonstrate a self-consistent and complete description of electron dynamics in a typical electropositive radio frequency magnetron sputtering RFMS argon discharge with a dielectric target.

The interplay between the fundamental plasma parameters is analyzed through their spatiotemporal dynamics. Due to the influence of magnetic trap on the electron transport, a spatially dependent charging that perturbs the electric potential is observed on the dielectric target surface, resulting in a spatially dependent ion energy distribution along the target surface.

The electron power absorption can be primarily decoupled into the positive Ohmic power absorption in the bulk plasma region and the negative pressure-induced power absorption near the target surface. Ohmic power absorption is the dominant electron power absorption mechanism, mostly contributed by the azimuthal electron current. The power absorption due to electron inertial effects is negligible on time-average.

Both the maximum power absorption and dissipation of electrons appear in the bulk plasma region during the second half of the RF period, implying a strong electron trapping in magnetron discharges.

The contribution of secondary electrons is negligible under typical RFMS discharge conditions. The low earth orbit plasma experienced by exposed interconnect-dielectric junctions commonly found on spacecraft solar panel surfaces was modeled using a fully kinetic particle-in-cell PIC simulation of both ambient ions and electrons. Comparison of the electron plasma sheath thickness with analytic cylindrical sheath models gave reasonable agreement if the embedded biased interconnect voltage was sufficiently high to cause the dielectric surface to act as a free electron flowing medium.

Finally, it was found from the fully kinetic PIC simulations that the fundamental mechanism behind parasitic current is closely related to electron avalanche and the fraction of SEE emitted from different avalanche levels as well as the current collected at the interconnect could be modeled by a power law series for avalanche levels greater than two. Jan Benedikt et al Plasma Sources Sci. This foundation article discusses the diagnostics of electrons and ions in plasmas and fluxes of charged and neutral species toward plasma-facing surfaces by non-optical methods.

The focus is laid on the fundamentals of the most common methods and their application to non-equilibrium low-pressure electropositive plasmas and ion beams. For each method, the concepts are introduced, hints at best practice are given, and a survey of the recently published literature is included. Starting with the sheath�plasma boundary, the principles of plane and cylindrical LPs and the measurement of electron temperature and density are discussed.

Beyond standard textbooks, double, triple and emissive probes are described and modulation techniques for obtaining the electron energy distribution function are presented. More technical issues related to probe compensation in radio-frequency plasmas, probe contamination, and the influence of a magnetic field are also included.

The presentation is completed by modern radio-frequency techniques, such as impedance probes, multipole resonance probes, and self-excited electron resonance spectroscopy. FCs, retarding field analyzers RFAs as well as novel calorimetric and FPs are useful tools for the measurement of overall, not species resolved, ions and neutral species fluxes toward surfaces.

RFAs provide overall ion energy distribution functions, whereas calorimetric and FPs can deliver information about fluxes of fast neutrals. The issues related to secondary electron emission, absolute signal calibration, and analysis of plasmas with complex chemistry are discussed. Mass spectrometry diagnostics is capable of mass and energy-resolved detection of ions and neutral species at the plasma-facing surfaces. Detection, identification and absolute density calibration of neutral stable and radical species are treated in detail and peculiarities of ion mass spectrometry, such as detection of negative ions, ion measurements in front of powered electrodes, or chromatic aberration and acceptance angle limitations in energy spectrum measurements are introduced.

The Brambring representation of the continuity equation is not derivable from Boltzmann's equation and consequently transport properties defined within the framework are not clearly representable in terms of the phase-space distribution function. One example is a 1D-t image during one RF period. Another example is a 2D or 3D snapshot at each phase of the transition, captured using in computerized emission tomography.

Most studies have been performed in argon, oxygen, or their mixture in an ICP driven at In the present paper we review and explore the past three decades of research into the electron dynamics related to plasma sustenance at each phase of the E�H and H�E transitions, including our new results. The hysteresis of the internal plasma parameters as a function of external parameter is discussed in terms of a change of species density, particularly long-lived metastables in plasma in the bidirectional E�H transition.

Richard Engeln et al Plasma Sources Sci. Over the past few decades many diagnostics have been developed to study the non-equilibrium nature of plasma. These developments have given experimentalists the possibility to measure in situ molecular and atomic densities, electron and ion densities, temperatures and velocities of species in the plasma, to just name a few.

Much later they were introduced in the research of plasmas. In this foundation paper we will focus on optical-based diagnostics that are now for quite some time common use in the field of low-temperature plasma physics research. The basic principles of the diagnostics will be outlined and references will be given to papers where these techniques were successfully applied. For a more comprehensive understanding of the techniques the reader will be referred to textbooks.

This paper presents recent progress on the development of the new multi-purpose particle modeling and simulation tool VizGrain. A unique aspect of VizGrain is that it allows computational modeling of particle dynamics in a variety of systems, including rarefied gas dynamics, macroscopic particle dynamics e.

VizGrain allows working with atomic sized particles and particles with finite macroscopic sizes. The former approach is used to model rarefied gas dynamics and conventional non-equilibrium plasmas, while the finite sized macro-particles are considered for the modeling of dusty plasmas, aerosols, droplets etc. In this latter case, the electrical charge up of particles in a plasma environment is considered.

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