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The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Europe and the United States, in the period from about to sometime between and This transition included going from hand production methods to machines , new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, the increasing use of steam power and water power , the development of machine tools and the rise of the mechanized factory system.
The Industrial Revolution also led to an unprecedented rise in the rate of population growth. Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital invested. The textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain , and many of the technological innovations were of British origin.
The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. Some economists have said the most important effect of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the general population in the western world began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries.
GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy, [12] while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita economic growth in capitalist economies.
The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. Ashton held that it occurred roughly between and Mechanized textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the United States in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium and the United States and later textiles in France. An economic recession occurred from the late s to the early s when the adoption of the Industrial Revolution's early innovations, such as mechanized spinning and weaving, slowed and their markets matured.
Innovations developed late in the period, such as the increasing adoption of locomotives, steamboats and steamships, hot blast iron smelting and new technologies, such as the electrical telegraph , widely introduced in the s and s, were not powerful enough to drive high rates of growth.
Rapid economic growth began to occur after , springing from a new group of innovations in what has been called the Second Industrial Revolution. These innovations included new steel making processes , mass-production , assembly lines , electrical grid systems, the large-scale manufacture of machine tools and the use of increasingly advanced machinery in steam-powered factories.
The earliest recorded use of the term "Industrial Revolution" appears to have been in a letter from 6 July written by French envoy Louis-Guillaume Otto , announcing that France had entered the race to industrialise. However, although Engels wrote his book in the s, it was not translated into English until the late s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then.
Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee , whose lectures gave a detailed account of the term. Economic historians and authors such as Mendels, Pomeranz and Kridte argue that the proto-industrialization in parts of Europe, Islamic world , Mughal India , and China created the social and economic conditions that led to the Industrial Revolution, thus causing the Great Divergence. Some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts , have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually, and that the term revolution is a misnomer.
This is still a subject of debate among some historians. Six factors facilitated industrialization: high levels of agricultural productivity to provide excess manpower and food; a pool of managerial and entrepreneurial skills; available ports, rivers, canals and roads to cheaply move raw materials and outputs; natural resources such as coal, iron and waterfalls; political stability and a legal system that supported business; and financial capital available to invest. Once industrialization began in Great Britain, new factors can be added: the eagerness British entrepreneurs to export industrial expertise and the willingness to import the process.
Britain met the criteria and industrialized starting in the 18th century. Britain exported the process to western Europe especially Belgium, France and the German states in the early 19th century. The United States copied the British model in the early 19th century and Japan copied the Western European models in the late 19th century. The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, [32] beginning in the second half of the 18th century.
By the s the following gains Sailing Boats For Sale North Wales Twitter had been made in important technologies:. In Britain imported 2. The work was done by hand in workers' homes or occasionally in shops of master weavers. In raw cotton consumption was 22 million pounds, most of which was cleaned, carded and spun on machines.
The share of value added by the cotton textile industry in Britain was 2. Value added by the British woollen industry was Cotton factories in Britain numbered approximately in In approximately one-third of cotton cloth manufactured in Britain was exported, rising to two-thirds by In cotton spun amounted to 5.
In less than 0. In there were 50, spindles in Britain, rising to 7 million over the next 30 years. Wages in Lancashire , a core region for cottage industry and later factory spinning and weaving, were about six times those in India in , when overall productivity in Britain was about three times higher than in India. Parts of India, China, Central America, South America and the Middle-East have a long history of hand manufacturing cotton textiles, which became a major industry sometime after AD.
In tropical and subtropical regions where it was grown, most was grown by small farmers alongside their food crops and was spun and woven in households, largely for domestic consumption. In the 15th century China began to require households to pay part of their taxes in cotton cloth. By the 17th century almost all Chinese wore cotton clothing. Almost everywhere cotton cloth could be used as a medium of exchange. In India a significant amount of cotton textiles were manufactured for distant markets, often produced by professional weavers.
Some merchants also owned small weaving workshops. India produced a variety of cotton cloth, some of exceptionally fine quality. Cotton was a difficult raw material for Europe to obtain before it was grown on colonial plantations in the Americas. Sea island cotton grew in tropical areas and on barrier islands of Georgia and South Carolina, but did poorly inland. Sea island cotton began being exported from Barbados in the s. Upland green seeded cotton grew well on inland areas of the southern U.
The Age of Discovery was followed by a period of colonialism beginning around the 16th century. Following the discovery of a trade route to India around southern Africa by the Portuguese, the Dutch established the Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie abbr. VOC or Dutch East India Company , the world's first transnational corporation and the first multinational enterprise to issue shares of stock to the public. One of the largest segments of this trade was in cotton textiles, which were purchased in India and sold in Southeast Asia, including the Indonesian archipelago, where spices were purchased for sale to Southeast Asia and Europe.
By the mids cloth was over three-quarters of the East India Company's exports. Indian textiles were in demand in North Atlantic region of Europe where previously only wool and linen were available; however, the amount of cotton goods consumed in Western Europe was minor until the early 19th century. By Flemish refugees began weaving cotton cloth in English towns where cottage spinning and weaving of wool and linen was well established; however, they were left alone by the guilds who did not consider cotton a threat.
Earlier European attempts at cotton spinning and weaving were in 12th-century Italy and 15th-century southern Germany, but these industries eventually ended when the supply of cotton was cut off. The Moors in Spain grew, spun and wove cotton beginning around the 10th century. British cloth could not compete with Indian cloth because India's labour cost was approximately one-fifth to one-sixth that of Britain's. The demand for heavier fabric was met by a domestic industry based around Lancashire that produced fustian , a cloth with flax warp and cotton weft.
On the eve of the Industrial Revolution, spinning and weaving were done in households, for domestic consumption and as a cottage industry under the putting-out system. Occasionally the work was done in the workshop of a master weaver.
Under the putting-out system, home-based workers produced under contract to merchant sellers, who often supplied the raw materials. In the off season the women, typically farmers' wives, did the spinning and the men did the weaving. Using the spinning wheel , it took anywhere from four to eight spinners to supply one hand loom weaver. The flying shuttle , patented in by John Kay , with a number of subsequent improvements including an important one in , doubled the output of a weaver, worsening the imbalance between spinning and weaving.
It became widely used around Lancashire after when John's son, Robert , invented the drop box, which facilitated changing thread colors. Lewis Paul patented the roller spinning frame and the flyer-and-bobbin system for drawing wool to a more even thickness.
The technology was developed with the help of John Wyatt of Birmingham. Paul and Wyatt opened a mill in Birmingham which used their new rolling machine powered by a donkey.
In a factory opened in Northampton with 50 spindles on each of five of Paul and Wyatt's machines. This operated until about A similar mill was built by Daniel Bourn in Leominster , but this burnt down. Both Lewis Paul and Daniel Bourn patented carding machines in Based on two sets of rollers that travelled at different speeds, it was later used in the first cotton spinning mill. Lewis's invention was later developed and improved by Richard Arkwright in his water frame and Samuel Crompton in his spinning mule.
In in the village of Stanhill, Lancashire, James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny , which he patented in It was the first practical spinning frame with multiple spindles. The jenny produced a lightly twisted yarn only suitable for weft , not warp. The spinning frame or water frame was developed by Richard Arkwright who, along with two partners, patented it in The design was partly based on a spinning machine built for Thomas High by clockmaker John Kay, who was hired by Arkwright.
The roller spacing was slightly longer than the fibre length. Too close a spacing caused the fibres to break while too distant a spacing caused uneven thread. The top rollers were leather-covered and loading on the rollers was applied by a weight. The weights kept the twist from backing up before the rollers. The bottom rollers were wood and metal, with fluting along the length. A horse powered the first factory to use the spinning frame. Arkwright and his partners used water power at a factory in Cromford, Derbyshire in , giving the invention its name.
Samuel Crompton 's Spinning Mule was introduced in Mule implies a hybrid because it was a combination of the spinning jenny and the water frame, in which the spindles were placed on a carriage, which went through an operational sequence during which the rollers stopped while the carriage moved away from the drawing roller to finish drawing out the fibres as the spindles started rotating.
Mule spun thread was of suitable strength to be used as warp, and finally allowed Britain to produce highly competitive yarn in large quantities. Realising that the expiration of the Arkwright patent would greatly increase the supply of spun cotton and led to a shortage of weavers, Edmund Cartwright developed a vertical power loom which he patented in In he patented a two-man operated loom which was more conventional.
Cartwright's loom design had several flaws, the most serious being thread breakage. Samuel Horrocks patented a fairly successful loom in
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