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High-speed sailing - IOPscience

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Suppliers with verified business licenses. Contact Now. Order: Pieces. Order: 2 Pieces. Order: 60 Pieces. Order: 1 Piece. Order: 40 Pieces. Hull Length: mm Hull Width: mm Depth: 0. Hull Length: mm Hull Width: mm Height: 2. Liya Order: 16 Pieces. New Product Kids Radio Control 2. Order: 1 Set. Order: 5 Pieces. Order: 50 Pieces. Sailing craft with low forward resistance can achieve high velocities with respect to the wind velocity: [17]. Lateral force is a reaction supplied by the underwater shape of a sailboat, the blades of an ice boat and the wheels of a land sailing craft.

Sailboats rely on keels , centerboards , and other underwater foils, including rudders, that provide lift in the lateral direction, to provide hydrodynamic lateral force P LAT to offset the lateral force component acting on the sail F LAT and minimize leeway. They incorporate a wide variety of design considerations. The forces on sails that contribute to torque and cause rotation with respect to the boat's longitudinal fore and aft , horizontal abeam and vertical aloft rotational axes result in: roll e.

Heeling, which results from the lateral force component F LAT , is the most significant rotational effect of total aerodynamic force F T. Sails come in a wide variety of configurations that are designed to match the capabilities of the sailing craft to be powered by them. They are designed to stay within the limitations of a craft's stability and power requirements, which are functions of hull for boats or chassis for land craft design.

Sails derive power from wind that varies in time and with height above the surface. In order to do so, they are designed to adjust to the wind force for various points of sail. Both their design and method for control include means to match their lift and drag capabilities to the available apparent wind, by changing surface area, angle of attack, and curvature.

Wind speed increases with height above the surface; at the same time, wind speed may vary over short periods of time as gusts. These considerations may be described empirically. Measurements show that wind speed, V h varies, according to a power law with height h above a non-zero measurement height datum h 0 �e. Where the power law exponent p has values that have been empirically determined to range from 0.

Additionally, apparent wind direction moves aft with height above water, which may necessitate a corresponding twist in the shape of the sail to achieve attached flow with height. Hsu gives a simple formula for a gust factor G for winds as a function of the exponent p , above, where G is the ratio of the wind gust speed to baseline wind speed at a given height: [28].

This, combined with changes in wind direction suggest the degree to which a sailing craft must adjust to wind gusts on a given course. A sailing craft's motive system comprises one or more sails, supported by spars and rigging, that derive power from the wind and induce reactive force from the underbody of a sailboat or Chinese Sailboat Vector 100 the running gear of an ice boat or land craft.

Depending on the angle of attack of a set of sails with respect to the apparent wind, each sail is providing motive force to the sailing craft either from lift-dominant attached flow or drag-dominant separated flow. Additionally, sails may interact with one another to create forces that are different from the sum of the individual contributions each sail, when used alone.

Sails allow progress of a sailing craft to windward, thanks to their ability to generate lift and the craft's ability to resist the lateral forces that result.

Each sail configuration has a characteristic coefficient of lift and attendant coefficient of drag, which can be determined experimentally and calculated theoretically. Sailing craft orient their sails with a favorable angle of attack between the entry point of the sail and the apparent wind as their course changes.

The ability to generate lift is limited by sailing too close to the wind when no effective angle of attack is available to generate lift luffing and sailing sufficiently off the wind that the sail cannot be oriented at a favorable angle of attack running downwind.

Instead, past a critical angle of attack , the sail stalls and promotes flow separation. Each type of sail, acting as an airfoil, has characteristic coefficients of lift C L and lift-induced drag C D at a given angle of attack, which follow that same basic form of: [3]. As the angle of attack grows larger, the lift reaches a maximum at some angle; increasing the angle of attack beyond this critical angle of attack causes the upper-surface flow to separate from the convex surface of the sail; there is less deflection of air to windward, so the sail as airfoil generates less lift.

The sail is said to be stalled. Polar diagram : Coefficients of lift C L and drag C D for the angles of attack shown for the same sail. Aspect ratio : Polar plots of C L versus C D for cambered plates of the same camber, but different aspect ratios, as shown.

From Eiffel wind tunnel studies. Fossati presents polar diagrams that relate coefficients of lift and drag for different angles of attack [8] based on the work of Gustave Eiffel , who pioneered wind tunnel experiments on airfoils, which he published in Among them were studies of cambered plates. The results shown are for plates of varying camber and aspect ratios, as shown.

They also show that, for lower angles of attack, a higher aspect ratio generates more lift and less drag than for lower aspect ratios. If the lift and drag coefficients C L and C D for a sail at a specified angle of attack are known, then the lift L and drag D forces produced can be determined, using the following equations, which vary as the square of apparent wind speed V A : [31] [32].

Garrett demonstrates how those diagrams translate into lift and drag, for a given sail, on different points of sail, in diagrams similar to these: [33]. Reach : Lift more aligned with the direction of travel increases driving force and decreases lateral force. In these diagrams the direction of travel changes with respect to the apparent wind V A , which is constant for the purpose of illustration.

In reality, for a constant true wind, apparent wind would vary with point of sail. Constant V A in these examples means that either V T or V B varies with point of sail; this allows the same polar diagram to be used for comparison with the same conversion of coefficients into units of force in this case Newtons. In these cases, lift and drag are the same, but the decomposition of total aerodynamic force F T into forward driving force F R and lateral force F LAT vary with point of sail.

Forward driving force F R increases, as the direction of travel is more aligned with the wind, and lateral force F LAT decreases. In addition to the sails used upwind, spinnakers provide area and curvature appropriate for sailing with separated flow on downwind points of sail. Again, in these diagrams the direction of travel changes with respect to the apparent wind V A , which is constant for the sake of illustration, but would in reality vary with point of sail for a constant true wind.

In the left-hand diagram broad reach , the boat is on a point of sail, where the sail can no longer be aligned into the apparent wind to create an optimum angle of attack. Total aerodynamic force F T has moved away from the maximum lift value. In the right-hand diagram running before the wind , lift is one-fifth of the upwind cases for the same strength apparent wind and drag has almost quadrupled.

Spinnaker cross-section trimmed for a broad reach showing transition from boundary layer to separated flow where vortex shedding commences. A velocity prediction program can translate sail performance and hull characteristics into a polar diagram , depicting boat speed for various windspeeds at each point of sail. Displacement sailboats exhibit a change in what course has the best velocity made good VMG , depending on windspeed.

This "downwind cliff" abrupt change in optimum downwind course results from the change of balance in drag forces on the hull with speed. Sailboats often have a jib that overlaps the mainsail�called a genoa.

Arvel Gentry demonstrated in that the genoa and the mainsail interact in a symbiotic manner, owing to the circulation of air between them slowing down in the gap between the two sails contrary to traditional explanations , which prevents separation of flow along the mainsail.

The presence of a jib causes the stagnation line on the mainsail to move forward, which reduces the suction velocities on the main and reduces the potential for boundary layer separation and stalling. This allows higher angles of attack. Likewise, the presence of the mainsail causes the stagnation line on the jib to be shifted forward and allows the boat to point closer to the wind, owing to higher leeward velocities of the air over both sails.

Sails characteristically have a coefficient of lift C L and coefficient of drag C D for each apparent wind angle. The planform, curvature and area of a given sail are dominant determinants of each coefficient. Sails are classified as "triangular sails" , "quadrilateral fore-and-aft sails" gaff-rigged, etc. The trailing lower corner, the clew , is positioned with an outhaul on a boom or directly with a sheet , absent a boom.

Symmetrical sails have two clews, which Sailboat Vector Free 2019 may be adjusted forward or back. The windward edge of a sail is called the luff , the trailing edge, the leach , and the bottom edge the foot.

On symmetrical sails, either vertical edge may be presented to windward and, therefore, there are two leaches. On sails attached to a mast and boom, these edges may be curved, when laid on a flat surface, to promote both horizontal and vertical curvature in the cross-section of the sail, once attached. The use of battens allows a sail have an arc of material on the leech, beyond a line drawn from the head to the clew, called the roach.

As with aircraft wings, the two dominant factors affecting sail efficiency are its planform�primarily sail width versus sail height, expressed as an aspect ratio �and cross-sectional curvature or draft. In aerodynamics , the aspect ratio of a sail is the ratio of its length to its breadth chord. A high aspect ratio indicates a long, narrow sail, whereas a low aspect ratio indicates a short, wide sail.

Aspect ratio and planform can be used to predict the aerodynamic performance of a sail. This formula demonstrates that a sail's induced drag coefficient decreases with increased aspect ratio. The horizontal curvature of a sail is termed "draft" and corresponds to the camber of an airfoil. Increasing the draft generally increases the sail's lift force. Sail draft is adjusted for wind speed to achieve a flatter sail less draft in stronger winds and a fuller sails more draft in lighter winds.

On a staysail, tightening the luff with the halyard helps flatten the sail and adjusts the position of maximum draft.

On a mainsail curving the mast to fit the curvature of the luff helps flatten the sail. Depending on wind strength, Dellenbaugh offers the following advice on setting the draft of a sailboat mainsail: [41]. Plots by Larsson et al show that draft is a much more significant factor affecting sail propulsive force than the position of maximum draft.

The primary tool for adjusting mainsail shape is mast bend; a straight mast increases draft and lift; a curved mast decreases draft and lift�the backstay tensioner is a primary tool for bending the mast. Tactical graphics represent operational information that cannot be presented via icon-based symbols alone: unit boundaries, special area designations, and other unique markings related to battlespace geometry and necessary for battlefield planning and management.

There are point, line and area symbols in this category. Meteorological and oceanographic symbology is the only set not under the standard's control: rather, they are imported from the symbology established by the World Meteorological Organization. The signals intelligence and military operations other than war symbology sets stand apart from Units, Equipment, and Installations although they obey the same conventions i.

Most of the symbols designate specific points, and consist of a frame a geometric border , a fill , a constituent icon , and optional symbol modifiers. The latter are optional text fields or graphic indicators that provide additional information. The frame provides a visual indication of the affiliation, battle dimension, and status of an operational object. The use of shape and colour is redundant, allowing the symbology to be used under less-than-ideal conditions such as a monochrome red display to preserve the operator's night vision.

Nearly all symbols are highly stylised and can be drawn by persons almost entirely lacking in artistic skill; this allows one to draw a symbolic representation a GRAPHREP, Graphical report using tools as rudimentary as plain paper and pencil.

The frame serves as the base to which other symbol components and modifiers are added. In most cases a frame surrounds an icon.

One major exception is equipment, which may be represented by icons alone in which case the icons are coloured as the frame would be. The fill is the area within a symbol. If the fill is assigned a colour, it provides an enhanced redundant presentation of information about the affiliation of the object. If colour is not used, the fill is transparent. A very few icons have fills of their own, which are not affected by affiliation.

The icons themselves, finally, can be understood as combinations of elementary glyphs that use simple composition rules, in a manner reminiscent of some ideographic writing systems such as Chinese. The standard, however, still attempts to provide an "exhaustive" listing of possible icons instead of laying out a dictionary of component glyphs.

This causes operational problems when the need for an unforeseen symbol arises particularly in MOOTW , a problem exacerbated by the administratively centralised maintenance of the symbology sets.

When rendering symbols with the fill on, APP-6A calls for the frame and icon to be black or white as appropriate for the display. When rendering symbols with the fill off, APP-6A calls for a monochrome frame and icon usually black or in accordance with the affiliation colour.

NATO symbols can also be rendered with fill off using a frame coloured according to affiliation and a black icon, [2] though this is not defined in any APP-6 standard.

Instead, the original APP-6 described a series of "colour representations" with the purpose of distinguishing friendly and enemy elements. Affiliation refers to the relationship of the tracker to the operational object being represented.

The basic affiliation categories are unknown , friend , neutral , and hostile. In the ground unit domain, a yellow quatrefoil frame is used to denote unknown affiliation, a blue rectangle frame to denote friendly affiliation, a green square frame to denote neutral affiliation, and a red diamond frame to denote hostile affiliation.

These colors are used in phrases such as "blue on blue" for friendly fire , blue force tracking , red teaming , and Red Cells.

Battle dimension defines the primary mission area for the operational object within the battlespace. An object can have a mission area above the Earth's surface i.

If the mission area of an object is on the surface, it can be either on land or sea. The subsurface dimension concerns those objects whose mission area is below the sea surface e. Some cases require adjudication; for example, an Army or Marine helicopter unit is a manoeuvring unit i. Likewise, a landing craft whose primary mission is ferrying personnel or equipment to and from shore is a maritime unit and is represented in the sea surface dimension.

A landing craft whose primary mission is to fight on land, on the other hand, is a ground asset and is represented in the land dimension. An unknown battle dimension is possible; for example, some electronic warfare signatures e. Special Forces may operate in any dimension. The letter in parentheses is used by the symbol identification coding SIDC scheme � strings of 15 characters used to transmit symbols. The space and air battle dimensions share a single frame shape.

In the ground battle dimension, two different frames are used for the friendly and assumed friendly affiliations in order to distinguish between units and equipment. The SOF special operations forces are assigned their own battle dimension because they typically can operate across several domains air, ground, sea surface and subsurface in the course of a single mission; the frames are the same as for the ground unit battle dimension.

The status of a symbol refers to whether a warfighting object exists at the location identified i. Regardless of affiliation, present status is indicated by a solid line and planned status by a dashed line. The frame is solid or dashed, unless the symbol icon is unframed, in which case the icon itself is drawn dashed. Planned status cannot be shown if the symbol is an unframed filled icon.

The icon is the innermost part of a symbol which, when displayed, provides an abstract pictorial or alphanumeric representation of an operational object.

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