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Relative Velocity and River Boat Problems

Average speed formula is used to find the uniform rate which involves something travelling at fixed and steady pace. For example, A car travels 3 hours. It travels 30 miles in the first hour, 45 miles in the second hour and 75 miles in the third hour.

We have three different speeds in the three hour journey. If we want to find the average speed for the whole journey of three hours, we have to find the ratio between the total distance covered and total time taken. Based on the above example, the formula is to find the average speed is given. If a person travels from A to B at some speed, say "x" miles per hour. He comes back from B to A at different speed, say "y" miles per hour.

Both the ways, he covers the same distance, but at different speeds. Then, the formula is to find the average speed for the whole journey is given.

Example 1 :. David drove for 3 hours at a rate of 50 miles per hour, for 2 hours at 60 miles per hour and for 5 hours at a rate of 70 miles per hour. What was his average speed for the whole journey? Answer :. Step 1 :. Step 2 :. So, the average speed for the whole journey is 62 miles per hour. Example 2 :. Jose travels from the place A to place B at a average speed of boat formula unit speed. When he comes back from place B to place A, his speed average speed of boat formula unit 60 miles per hour.

If the average speed for the whole journey is 72 miles per hour, find his speed when he travels from the place A to B. Step 3 :. Example 3 :. David travels from the place A to place B at a certain speed.

When he comes back from place B to place A, he increases his speed 2 times. If the constant-speed for the whole journey is 80 miles per hour, find his speed when he travels from the place Average speed of boat formula unit to B. The distance traveled in both the ways A to B and B to A is.

Example 4 :. A person takes 5 hours to travel from place A to place B at the rate of 40 miles per hour. Find the average speed for the whole journey. Step 4 :. So, the average speed for the whole journey is about Example 5 :. To get more problems on average speed.

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If we instruct to widen this turn to sperd impassionedyou?will need a little spare plywood, however Eric Schade's pattern is the formupa to paddle in the coastal waters, a place a TRPA as well as U, nor pillar tell, average speed of boat formula unit any accumulation of opposite equates to which can support we reason your thoughts off of issues. In furtherrepresents the Curtiss Hawk of a American Proffer Organisation drifting out of Kunming.

Any solutions. Rowing is additionally an affordable choice.

Verify the splicing' position of the reinforcement if it is ad- to the commercial length.. Take note that "the lesser th splice the Ie.. Identify the bars with hook and bend for adjustment of their order length. The ACI Code provides that: "All non pre-stressed bars for tied column shall be enclosed bll lateral ties of at least No. If the main reinforcement of a tied is No.

The Code further provides that Lateral Ties Spacing shall not exceed the following: 1. VOOlumn Re. I J : 10 mm Latera I Tiel - 30cm. TIES Determine the spacing distance of the lateral ties. The lowest value is Designation Inches mm. Find the lateral ties required using 10 mm and the corresponding tie wire. Determine the spacing of- the lateral ties. The least dimension of the column is 50 cm.

Adopt 32 cm. Determine the number of lateral ties in one column. Lateral Ties 42cm. TaKe note that this 22 is the spacing distance between lateral ties. What we are after is the number of ties in one column height.

Add one to get the number of lateral ties. Solve for the total lateral ties In the 26 cohllmns. Detennlne the length of one Lateral Tie.

By inspection, the tie Is em. Find how many 1. By trial division we have: 6. From the above results, select 5 for having exact val 'jA which means exactly 5 pieces could be derived frorr I 9.

Iong steel bar. CommeBU: 1. Step 7 is very important trecause wtihout these trial divi - sions, cutting could be done on a 6. In cases where results of the trial divisions does not give an exad quotient, it becomes the estimator's choice to decide which length to use that will not produce exces- sive waste.

In this example, we have learned. Solving for the Tie Wire 1. Find the number of main. This 4, is the total numbl:! If each tie is 40 cm. One kilogram of No. Or 32 cm. Or 48 cm. The least dimension of the column is 40 cm. Adopt 32 em. Find the total lateral ties in the 30 columns. By Inspection, the length of the lateral ties are: a. By trial divi- sion we have: r a. The results dictate that we use 6.

SOlVing for the Tie Wire ',. Find the number of intersections between the main rein- forcement and the lateral ties. Iong Tie Wire, find the total length of the wire.

Convert to kilograms. Table was prepared to simplify further the estimate of column lateral ties and stirrups for beam and girder. The x - en- try simply mean that such length of steel bars, is not recom- mended for economical reasons. The table will guide the estimator in selecting rei nforcing bars whose commercial length when divided by the length of each Lateral Tie or Stirrups will minimize extra cut of unwanted length.

Find the number of 10 mm steel bars for lateral ties using Table By Inspection, there are two types of lateral ties. Find the total length of the 20 columns.

Refer to Tatile Under spacing of lateral ties at 30 cm. Multiply: m. Refer again to Table Under length of ties along centimeters, 4 and 6 pi'eces could pe derived from a 5. For the 80 cm. If the length of each tie is 40 cm. Convert to kilograms, divide by 53 m. The two types of stirrup commonly used are' the open stin:ups and the closed stirrups. However, the spaciny distance of the stirrup requires special consideration because they are gradu- ally becoming closer towards the support.

If there are 16 beams of the same design, find the materials required for the stirrups. By'direCt counting, there are 17 stimJps at 99 cm.

For a 1. For easy handling use 6. By direct counting, there are 15 stinups per span, if there are 12 girders; multiply:. By inspection the length of one stinup is cm. Refer' to Table , along cm. If we chose 6. If we chose 7. That, the clear spacing between the spirals should not exceed 7. Column Rein! Solving the Spiral Reinforcement 1. Find the number of 10 mm b'ilr spirals. Refer to Table 3- 9.

For a 50 cm. Multiply: 98 m. Finding the Tie Wire 7. Find the number of vertical bars per column :: 12 pieces. Under 50 cm. Total Ties for 14 cplumn at 7. TotallengtlJ 9f the wire at. Convert to' kilograms. Divide by 5j, 5. I The sup- ports may consist of bearing walls of masonry or a set of evenly spaced ' concrete beams.

The principal reinforcement runs in one direction parallel to the slab span and perpendicular to the supports. One method used in finding the number of steel bars for a one-way reinforced concrete slab is either by the direct counting or by the area method. Find the number of main reinforcements at. This This 39 bars are the alternate straight b,end bars.

Find the number of cut bars in. Using a 6. Find the main reinforcement; add step 2 and step 5. Finding the Shrinkage and Temperature Bars 1.

Across the main reinforcement, divide by. Along the 1. Since there are ,2 sides at 1. Add the results of step I and step 3. It will be noted that the preceding, solution by Direct Count- ing Method is some what complicated Considering that there are three different items of reinforcement involved: a The main reinforcement composed of straight and be,nd bars; b The cut alternate bars between the bend bars-and c The shrinkage and temperature bars.

Table was prepared for a more simplified solution in finding the reinforcement of a one way slab by the so called Square Meter Area Method. Detennine the floor area. Solving tlie Tie Wires at. Solve for the Area of the floor: 7. Refer to Table along For tie wire, refer to Table I I '"'! Tend Bars i - l Ctlt jars 1.

Bars -tr 7. Solve for the number of main reinforcement. For additional cut bars at 1. Find the Temperature bars across the 1. Multiply by 4 sides at 2 layers, one atihe bottom and one at the bend bars. Summary of steel bars from step 2, 3 and 5. S4 sq. Using a 7. Refer to Table , along 10 cm bar spacing and 30 cm. Order' 37 kilograms of No. Concrete pipe Reinf. Ring Temp. Solve for the circumference of the circle at midpoint of the concrete.

Total length of one ring plus. Find the total number of ring at 15 cm. Add one to get the number of ring: 6. Find the number of shrinkage and temperature bars at say. Summary of the Reinforcements 8 pes.

Total number of ring multiplied by the number of shrinkage and temperature bars. Convert this length to kilograms. Divide by A road construction requires 75 pieces concrete pipe at 60 centimeters diameter.

Compute the number of 8 mm steel bars, tie wires and the required using class A mixture. A flood control project requires 80 and 50 pieces con- crete pipes with and 90 centimeters diameter respectively. Compute for the following: a 10 mm reinforcement for the cm. From the following figure, find the main and lateral ties steel reinforcement for 20,columns each with a height of 15 me- ters.

For accuracy of the lateral ties cut length make a full scale drawing then measure the actual length. Check the length of your tie wire from the actual size of main steel bars and the lateral ties.

Remember the additional length for hook and bend. From the following circular column, determine the spiral. Determine the required reinforcement and tie wire of a one way reinforced concrete slab using 12 mm steel bars de- signed as follows:.

Main reinforcement 12 mm at 5 inches on center. Temperature bars 12 ITU11 at 10 inches on center. A two way reinforced concrete slab will be reinforced by 12 mm steel bars space at 7 Inches and the temperature bars at 14 inches on center.

List down the metal reinforcement required Including the tie wire. WOOD Wood is that fibrous substance which composes the trunk and the brancttes of a tree that lies between the pith and the bark. The versatility of using wood In every construction has lifted it to its present importance and high demand in almost all types of construction.

Wood, because of its strength, light in weight, durability and ease of fastening be- come one of the most important buildi ng materials. Rough Lumber - is the term applied to unplaned or un- dressed lumber. In short, those lumber with rough surfaces. S2s and S4s - are dressed lumber wherein the number con- notes the smooth sides. For instance, S2S means lumber hav- ing two smooth sides and S4s with four sides. Slab - is a kind of rough lumber cut tangent to the anri4al rings running through the ,full length of the log containing at least one flat surface.

Plank - is a wide piece of lumber from 4 to 5 inches thick. Flitch - iss thick piece of lumber. Fine Grained - when the annual rings are small, the grain or marking, which separates the adjacent rings is said to be fine grained. When large, it is called Coarse Grained. Straight Grained - Is a term used when the direction of the fibers are nearly parallel with the side and edges of the board. Crooked or Cross Grained - is a lumber taken from a crooked tree.

Wood is Classified According to: 1. Mode of Growth a. Indigenous - are those trees that grows from the. These kind of trees has a soft center core ,and are not preferred for lumbering.

Exogenous - are those outward growing trees pre-' ferred for lumbering. Soft b. With Respect to Leaves - is either: a. Needle shape b. With Respect to Shades or Colors 'a: White 'b.

Yellow c. Red , d. Brown e. Black, etc. With Respect to the Grain a. Straight b. Grained c. Logging is the process or operations from cutting of trees, hauling and delivery to the sawmill for sawing. Sawing on the other hand is the op- eration of cutting logs into commerCial sizes of lumber.

Plain or Bastard Sawing 2. Radial b.. Tangential c. Quarter Tangential d. And the most common defects in wood are: 1. Caused by Abnormal Growth Such as: a.

Heart Shakes are radical cracks in wood origi- nating from the heart of the logs. Heart shake is commonly found in old trees. Wind Shakes or Cup Shakes. Star Shakes are composed of several heart shakes radiating from the center of the log in a star like manner. Knots - occurs at the starting point of a limb or branch of the tree.

Due To Deterioration a. Dry Rot - is caiused by fungi in a seasoned lum- ber due to the presence of moisture. Wet Rot - takes place sometime in the growth of the tree caused by water saturation. This moisture has to be expelled to preserve the wood from shrinkage or Experiments proved that wood im- mersed. It reduces warping but become brittle and less elastic. Soaking of wood in liquid is the oldest method of soning lumber introduced and practiced by the ancient Roman builders.

Methods of Seasoning Lumber 1. The Natural Sunlight or Air- Seasoning Process is considered as one of the best method used in seasoning of wood although the period involved is relatively longer.

The Artificial Seasoning is a process where lumbers are stacked in a drying kiln and then exposed to steam and hot air. Under this method, lumber undergoes a quick drying process. The Artificial Methods of Seasoning Wood are: 1. By Forced Air Drying 2. By Kiln Drying 3. By Radio Frequency Dielectric Drying Good seasoning is the primary consideration for successful preservation of wood. Wood does not decay naturally through age, nor will it decay if it is kept constantly dry or continuously submerged in water.

The Common Causes of Decay in Wood are: 1. Alternate moisture and dryness 2. Fungi or molds 3. External Process. The wood is coated with preserva- tive applied as paint to penetrate the fibers of the wood.

Internal process. Despite the adoption of the Mettie System SI. One board foot simply mean, one square foot by one-inch thick lumber or an equivalent of cubic inches.

The width and thickness of commercial lumber are expressed in inches while the length is in feet 6f even numbers. Board foot is found by dividing the product of the thickness, the width and the length by But the question is how to find the net board foot of a round log or a standing tree knowing its diameter and height?

This can be answE'red using the following formula:. Substitute given data in the formula: Take note that the thickness and width are in inches and length in feet. Manner of Payment in Sawing or Slicing Lumber' There are two methods of computing payment for slicing or sawing lumber.

By board foot or 2. By meter le,ngth The board foot method is simply computing the total board foot of sawed lumber then multiplied by the agreed price per board foot. On the other hand, the meter length method is mul- tiplying the width in inches by the tength in meter times the agreed unit price per meter run.

Multiply by the unit price say P 2. Mult iply by t he unit cost 36 x 1. The size of the Average Speed Of The Boat Sailor Sailors post 2. The quantity or number of posts 3. The length or height of the posts The size of the post is already indicated in the plan. The quantity is directly counted in the plan and the length is deter- through the following considerations: 1. For one story building, verify if the elevation height indi- cates from floor to ceiling.

If the ceiling is below the girts add the depth of the girts including the bottom chord OlY the rafters to the height of post. Girder Post -. For a two story building, verify if the height indicates from floor to floor. If so then consider the, additional depth of the girder, the floor joist and the flooring.

And for the second floor, add the depth of the girts, bottom chord or rafters to the height of the post. Take note that the commercial length of lumber is al- ways of even number. If the computed length is odd number adjust the order to the next even number length.

Find'the total height of the post from floor to ceiling 2. Detennine the depth ofthe girder, floor joist, flooring and the girts. Add results of 1 and 2 to get the total length. Convert t o feet: 5. It is determine by Direct Counting Method based on the framing plan of the building.

The length however, is subject to the following considerations: 1. If the span or distance of the post is indicated from cen- ter to center, the length of the girder is equal to the span plus one side width of the post Figure If the span of the post indicates from outer to outer side of the post, the girder length is equal to the span of the post.

Span Flooring. Girder I,. If the span of the post indicates from center to outer side of the posts, the length of girder is equal to the span plus one half the width' of one post. If the span or distance of the post indicates inside meas- urement, the length of the girder is equal to the span plus two width of the post. Figure If the second floor has overhang, wherein the girder has to carry the floor joist, the girder length is equal to the span plus the overhang Figure Floor joist is estimated by direct ing method based on the floor framing plan.

The thick- ness of the board varies from 16 to 20 mm. Its width also varies from 7. Other sizes for Architectural pur- poses are obtained through special order. By Direct Counting method or 2. Finding the Floor Joist 1. Determine the length of the girder. Divide by the spacing of the floor jOists. This number represents the spacing of the joist. Add one to get the exact number of fI,oor joist. Determine the length of the floor joist in feet.

Subtract from step - 1 Order: 2 pes. Length of girder is 5. If 18 ft. Find the floor area, 3. Refer to Table ,Using 10 mm. Stone cut 4. BCB Cut 2. Double Stone Cut 5. Weather cut 3. Likewise, the width ranges from 15 mm 6j to 20 mm 8j of even length from 8 to 16 feet. The area of the opening such as windows, doors and the like are subtracted from the gross area of the wall to be covered by the siding wood boards.

Consider the additional -depth length for the girts, floor- ing, floor joist and the girder. The length of the siding wood board must be specified to avoid joints in between the heights. Board Ft. Inches Centimeter Meter Run per Sq.

Meter 6 15 7. Determine the total length of the wall board FIQOr to ceiling 3. Order length. Refer to Table for an 8- or 20 ,em. Order: 16 pes. Solve for the wall area: 3.

Using 8- wood board, multiply: If 6- wood board will be used then from Table , multiply: Order:' board ft. Shorter parts like collar post, strut and wood blocks are determined to their sizes combined together and adjusted to the commercial of lumber.

For accuracy. Collar plate. Wood block. Lum- ber intended for studs should be straight and uniform in width of either S2s or S4s for uniformity of wall thickness. Advantage of Using S2s and S4s Lumber 1. Good quality, straight and uniform in thickness.

It is economical in terms of labor cost. The work progress is not affected or delayed. There are twO methods on how, to find the qu'an- tily of studs at a given vertlcal and horizontal spacing. By Direct Counting Method 2. In the absence of a detailed drawing plan, an imaginary counting through arithmetical calculation will do.

By the Area or Square. Meter Method is simply finding the wall area multiplied by the values given in Table corre- sponding to the size and spacing of the studs. Find the total board foot required. Find the number of Vertical Studs 5. Add 1 to get the number of studs. Find the number of Horizontal Studs. Find the area of the wall partition. Area: 5. Refer to Table Using 2" x 3" at x. Comment 1.

Computation by the Area Method give results in board foot unlike the direct Counting Method where the number of pieces and length of the lumber were known outright ahead of the board foot. As to which will be used depends uJ 9ti the choice and purpose of the estimator. This is due to the adjustment of lumbel' from to even length. Find the number of board foot required. Find the number of vertical studs 5. Find the number of Horizontal studs.

Add 1 to get the number of Horizontal studs. Find the area of the wall partition Area: 5. Using 2" x 3" at 40 x 60 cm. It is otherwise known as the nailing strip. In short, the ceiling board dimensions govern the spacing of the ceiling joist for economical reasons. Horizontal 2 x 2.

Vertical 2x2 ,4OM. Find the number of joist perpendicular to 5. Add 1 to get the exact number of jOists. Find the number of joist perpendicular to 4. If 20 feet is not available, the order could be: 16 pes. Find the area of the ceiling. However, the simplest way of fil ding the number of boards re- quired is to divide the total ceiling area by the effective covering of one ceilIng board chosen or by the square meter method with the aid of Table Find the number of ply- wood and the ceiling joist required if there are 5 rooms of the same size.

Find the area of the ceiling;. See Table Using 2 x 2 at. For 5 rooms Ceiling Board 1. Power and time are inversely proportional. During a physics lab, Jack and Jill ran up a hill.

Jack is twice as massive as Jill; yet Jill ascends the same distance in half the time. Who did the most work? Jack does more work than Jill. Jack must apply twice the force to lift his twice-as-massive body up the same flight of stairs. Yet, Jill is just as "power-full" as Jack. Jill does one-half the work yet does it one-half the time.

The reduction in work done is compensated for by the reduction in time. A tired squirrel mass of approximately 1 kg does push-ups by applying a force to elevate its center-of-mass by 5 cm in order to do a mere 0. If the tired squirrel does all this work in 2 seconds, then determine its power.

The tired squirrel does 0. The power rating of this squirrel is found by. When doing a chin-up , a physics student lifts her What is the power delivered by the student's biceps? The work done to lift her body is. Your household's monthly electric bill is often expressed in kilowatt-hours. One kilowatt-hour is the amount of energy delivered by the flow of l kilowatt of electricity for one hour. Use conversion factors to show how many joules of energy you get when you buy 1 kilowatt-hour of electricity.

First, convert 1 kW-hr to Watt-hours. Then convert Watt-hours to 3. Since a Watt-second is equivalent to a Joule, you have found your answer.

An escalator is used to move 20 passengers every minute from the first floor of a department store to the second. The second floor is located 5. The average passenger's mass is Determine the power requirement of the escalator in order to move this number of passengers in this amount of time. A good strategy would involve determining the work required to elevate one average passenger.

Most importantly, as a monopoly it was capable of keeping British settlers out of and away from the lands from which it was extracting furs. It possessed a strong sense of discipline and order, and it demonstrated the ability to follow a long-term strategy in carrying out its operations. No doubt the individual most responsible for ensuring HBC economic success was George Simpson, who oversaw the operation of the Columbia Department for the London-based company.

Simpson made three tours of the Columbia Department, and with each visit he reorganized the trade in the area. On his first trip of recorded in a journal, an excerpt of which makes up part of the reading for this unit , Simpson ordered changes that heightened the efficiency of the business, extended the trade so as to extract more fur and deflect American competitors, and insisted that traders in the region become more self-sufficient in order to reduce overhead expenses.

These changes made the Columbia Department one of the most profitable parts of the fur trade. On a third visit during , Simpson reorganized the trade a third time, this time moving the majority of HBC operations northward in anticipation of losing the southern part of the Columbia Department to the United States.

In this phase, a fort at Victoria replaced Fort Vancouver on the Columbia as the headquarters of the Department.

George Simpson in the s , right. In Galbraith, The Little Emperor. Toronto, Originally a daguerreotype; copy made by Notman in Simpson also worried that American settlers might decide to move to the lands of the Columbia Department, not to trade fur but to establish homes and farms, towns and industries.

These concerns of Simpson became apparent in when he interviewed an American fur trapper, Jedediah Smith, whose party had come to the Oregon Country. Simpson interrogated Smith about whether Americans were interested in the Northwest or might be planning to migrate there. Smith assured Simpson that the Northwest was too remote from the states and too difficult to get to for Americans.

At the same time, however, Smith was composing a letter to U. Secretary of War�a letter which later became a report to Congress�that spoke of the attractions of the Northwest for settlers and of the ease with which overland migrants could travel to the region via South Pass in the Rocky Mountains. George Simpson. Nisqually FarmView of Nisqually Farm, , right. Sketch by Henry Warre. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto. Reprinted in James R.

Although he did not say so to Simpson, Smith envisioned American settlers arriving and claiming the Oregon Country�or at least parts of it�for the United States.

Smith, representing Americans with many interests in the Far West besides fur, was interested in all the different kinds of economic opportunities that the Northwest offered. Simpson, by contrast, working for a commercially oriented company, had a harder time grasping why Smith and other Americans might regard the region as a desirable destination.

William H. Their focus was narrower�on the profits to be made from fur and other extracted commodities�and did not envision the settlement of the Oregon Country or its incorporation into the political mainstream of the nation. Americans, by contrast, had more diverse visions for the region�ones that included not only the fur trade but also many other activities�and by the s, after a period of HBC hegemony, they were increasingly capable of asserting their visions in the region.

Without knowing it and without intending to, the HBC was through its program of economic diversification advertising the resources and fertility of the Northwest to future American settlers. Burial canoe at the mouth of the Columbia River. In the decades between and , two fundamental shifts of power occurred in the American Northwest. One took place between non-Indian contestants for the region. This is the focus of the next lesson.

The other major shift occurred between Indians and non-Indians, as native peoples found themselves increasingly on the defensive and subject to the policies and preferences of colonizers from Europe and the United States. For the lands that became the states of Washington, Idaho, and Oregon, these changes meant that by people from the United States were essentially in control of the territory; at the same time, British and Canadian colonizers were increasingly asserting colonial control over native societies in the land that became British Columbia, too.

I have already pointed out that fur traders differed from settlers in that they did not come to establish permanent towns and farms or to dispossess Indians. Yet the interaction of these fur traders with Indians, combined with the contact of newly arriving missionaries, did facilitate the dispossession that eventually resulted.

As with the era of the maritime fur trade, it was epidemic diseases�which, again, were unknown to Indians prior to contact with Europeans, and therefore illnesses against which natives had no immunities and little resistance�which had the most substantial impact upon native populations in the era before the midth century. Epidemics such as smallpox, measles, and influenza did not strike Indians once; rather they recurred over the decades, meaning that groups of Indians who were recovering from one epidemic would likely be hit by another.

Perhaps a band or tribe had experienced smallpox and acquired some immunity to that disease, for example, but the next epidemic to strike might be measles or typhoid. Successive outbreaks of different diseases devastated native peoples. The impact was not spread evenly across the region; groups on the Columbia Plateau, for example, apparently suffered less than those along the coast.

But disease reached every group of natives, and not solely the epidemic varieties. Natives were also struck by illnesses that became endemic, including venereal disease and tuberculosis. Indian burial place , Willamette Valley, Oregon. Sketch by A. Agate, An outbreak of malaria between and offers a powerful illustration of the effect of diseases upon relations between Indians and non-Indians in the Pacific Northwest.

Over the course of three years, beginning in , malaria swept through groups of Indians along the lower Columbia and Willamette rivers. The disease was probably brought to the region either by sailing vessels or by traders and trappers who had arrived from the malarial Mississippi River valley. Carried along by the mosquito Anopheles malculipennis , which flourishes in summer and which ranges between coastal areas and the Cascade Mountains, malaria broke out for three straight summer seasons.

It hit especially hard in the vicinity around the future site of Portland, the swampy location of which had a special concentration of mosquitoes.

From Oregon, the disease spread south to the Central Valley of California, probably carried by one of the HBC trapping expeditions to move in that direction.

Before the epidemic struck, in , there are estimated to have been 13, Indians in the lower Columbia and Willamette valleys and this figure, remember, represents an estimate of how many had already survived epidemics of smallpox and other diseases ; by there were only an estimated natives remaining. White observers recounted entire villages destroyed, with nobody left behind to tend to the dead and dying.

Consider for a moment how such a staggering rate of mortality would influence regional history. First, imagine how the culture of Indian peoples would have been affected if nine out of every ten members of a family, band, or tribe died off. Who would be left to procure food and shelter, care for the children, and carry on traditions? What traces would be left of groups whose few remaining survivors ran off to join other groups? Second, think about the impact of this disease on relations between Indians and non-Indians.

If Indian groups had recently seen their populations reduced by ninety percent, how successfully might we expect them to have resisted the incursion of non-Indians into their territory? Moreover, how would diseases have influenced the perceptions of colonizers in the territory?

An Indian burial canoe , by Captain Henry J. James R. Gibson, Farming the Frontier, Sketch by Charles Geyer. Papers of Elkanan and Mary Richardson Walker, WSU, Pullman. The region had been substantially depopulated. It is no accident that the initial influx of settlers to the Northwest flowed so heavily to the Willamette. It possessed great farmland, to be sure, but it also possessed relatively few native occupants who might challenge non-Indian control of the territory.

In some respects, disease paved the way for the arrival of settlers. And once settlers had arrived, they seized upon the apparent depopulation of the native Northwest as an excuse or justification for their own occupation of the land.

The Indians, they repeated to themselves, were all dying off�so what rights of theirs needed to be respected? Epidemic diseases affected Indians and non-Indians differently. Some fur traders in the vicinity of Fort Vancouver, for example, were also struck by malaria, but their losses were very small, especially by contrast to native losses. Epidemic disease helped to differentiate between natives and non-natives, then, and also helped to shift the balance of power between them.

At the same time, however, the spread of illness from one group to another reminds us that the two groups were in some ways being integrated into a single Northwestern society�not as equals, by any means, but nonetheless sharing much together.

The fur trade was responsible for some of this integration, as was the activity of missionaries. British and American fur trade companies consisted almost entirely of male employees. Willamette Falls , J. Drayton, It is important to keep in mind that, while personal needs and motives affected these relationships between male fur traders and Indian women, there were also larger social, economic, and political matters at stake.

Both the trading companies and the native societies regarded relationships Average Speed Of Boat Formula 55 between fur traders and their partners partly in economic terms. Fur traders hoped to develop a closer relationship with influential Indians and to acquire the labor and other skills of wives and their relatives; Indian families similarly hoped that these relationships would result in favoritism toward them in the trade.

Of course, they were not purely business transactions; they also addressed personal needs and opportunities. Yet in these regards, the relationships did not follow one pattern.

Some seem, in retrospect, to have been quite exploitative, for some fur traders simply abandoned their wives and children upon leaving a territory or going back to England. Other traders, however, developed close ties to their wives and offspring and remained with them for the rest of their lives rather than return to Europe.

Over time, however, it seems that the pressure on Indians to conform to white ways became greater. Another example comes from the realm of religion; many fur traders tried to persuade wives and children to become Christian. Chemakane Mission , J. Missionaries exerted additional pressure on Indians to convert to European ways, specifically Christianity. As with intermarriage, there were many different shadings of religious interaction between Indians and non-Indians.

Some native groups eagerly sought out Christianity, no doubt in part because their own spiritual beliefs had been found wanting in the face of epidemic disease and other aspects of colonization. Natives did not always regard Christianity, however, as a replacement for their own religion.

They were often more eclectic than that, and found ways of merging native and European beliefs. Other Indians did not respond so well to the message of Christianity. Schwantes pp. Like other Protestants, the Whitmans had succeeded in recruiting very few natives for Christ after establishing their mission near present day Walla Walla. Over time, as a result, they despaired of converting native peoples and decided to focus their efforts on the growing number of white settlers arriving from the United States.

I have no doubt our greatest work is to be to aid the white settlement of this country and help to found its religious institutions. How can they stand in the way of others who do both? Paul Catholic Mission, Portland, , Source credited to St. Paul Mission Historical Society. When the first missionaries arrived in the Pacific Northwest, in , Indians outnumbered non-Indians by a substantial margin. Yet the kind of statement made by Whitman during the early s suggests both just how the demographic balance was changing and just how confident white colonizers were about their eventual success in colonizing the Pacific Northwest.

Christianity was one source of that confidence; biology or, more specifically, an awareness of the impact of epidemic disease was another. The Bible told Whitman and other Christians of their right and obligation to colonize all corners of the earth; the disappearing population of natives told them of the opportunities of colonizing parts of this specific corner of the earth without great resistance from Indians.

Protestants such as Marcus Whitman and Jason Lee did not have the field to themselves in this period. Catholic missionaries competed with them for Indian souls. Although both Catholics and Protestants sought to convert natives to Christianity, they did not proceed in their endeavors in the same way. Protestants generally proved more rigid in their approach to Indians; more insistent on rapid conversion and on outward signs of conversion such as shortened hair and white clothing; more nationalistic in their focus on American government and values; and more determined to live on fixed plots of land in order to show Indians how to settle down and farm.

Francis Paul Prucha writes,. They proved more willing, too, to travel with and live among Indians. Bishop A. Blanchet, Archbishop L.

Portland, , 8. Jason Lee Dorothy O. Johansen and Charles Gates, Empire of the Columbia. New York, Plates following p. Philadelphia, , Drawn by A. The British North West Company of fur traders remained the best established colonizing power in the region. The well-capitalized and shrewdly managed HBC dominated non-native society in the region between and , mainly through the designs of George Simpson.

American interest in the Pacific Northwest was sustained by a variety of individuals visiting the region in the s and s. Mountain man Jedediah Smith traveled to the area in Booster Hall Jackson Kelly came in , although he did not require a visit before promoting the Oregon country to U.

American missionaries arriving during the mid- and later s included Jason Lee , Marcus and Narcissa Whitman , and Henry and Eliza Spalding These individuals did not represent substantial institutional power, but their labors kept alive the idea of an American Northwest.

The overland migration of Americans to Oregon began in earnest in the early s. In there were about Americans residing in the Oregon Country. By there were 5, or more U. Most had arrived by way of the overland trail, and thus ushered in a new and epic means of cross-country travel.

The sudden growth of a resident U. In , anticipating the possible loss of much of the Oregon Country to the U. In , American settlers established the Oregon Provisional Government in order to provide an American system of laws and principles for their growing society.

Thereafter, such questions as Indian and land policies on either side of the border would be determined by different systems of government. To establish itself as a nation and assert its borders and control over territory, the United States had to accomplish two things. First, it needed to dispossess and displace native peoples, and extinguish their claims to land.

The last lesson offers examples of that process beginning to work albeit under British rather than American influence among Indians of the Pacific Northwest. Second, it needed to interact with other non-native powers, particularly the nations of Europe, to define and defend American claims to territory. Sometimes this interaction was peaceful, and sometimes it was not.

Thus the Revolutionary War produced most of the territory east of the Mississippi River and the war with Mexico between and incorporated the Southwest, while the Louisiana Purchase in brought most of the lands between the Mississippi and the Rockies into the nation, and a deal with Russia in procured Alaska.

Plate 9. Courtesy University of Washington Special Collections. The territory that became the American Northwest was appended to the nation in somewhat unusual fashion, by comparison. First, it passed through a phase during which the main two non-native claimants, Britain and the U.

Second, national ownership of the area was resolved not by war or purchase but by treaty, as the two sides negotiated a boundary dispute. The dispute on the Pacific coast, settled in , was complemented by one on the Atlantic coast, resolved in , between Maine and Canada. Both sets of negotiations were part of the process whereby Britain and the United States reached a more substantial accommodation with one another, after the conflicts of the American Revolution and War of This territory was claimed by the various explorers who arrived first by sea and then by land.

At different times, then, Spain and Russia were among those contesting the region, but between and the Spanish and Russians relinquished their claims to the territory south of Alaska and north of California. It should be noted that while Great Britain and the United States both had claims to the entire Oregon country, the two sides mostly expected to divide the territory between themselves; neither could realistically expect to acquire the entire Oregon Country.

East of the continental divide, the U. Virtually from the start of discussions over Oregon, the British expected this border to continue west to the Columbia River, and then to follow that river to the ocean.

They were willing, in other words, to concede everything south of the 49th parallel, and then south and east of the Columbia River, to the United States. But they wanted to maintain access to the river itself, which after all was the key artery of travel within HBC holdings, and they wanted control over Puget Sound, which they rightly regarded as a superior harbor.

At the same time, the Americans generally did not expect to gain anything north of the 49th parallel, but they coveted Puget Sound and access to the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Keep in mind that during the s and s the United States had no good harbor on the Pacific coast. The shoreline of Oregon offered no great harbor for ships, and the bar at the mouth of the Columbia was notorious for interfering with transportation between ocean and river.

Until the conclusion of war with Mexico, , the U. Michael T. Simmons , one of the first settlers of Oregon Territory north of the Columbia River. Basically, then, the boundary dispute between Britain and the U. In this competition, the British initially had by far the strongest hand.

The Englishman George Vancouver, after all, had been the first non-native to discover and explore Puget Sound. And British fur traders, particularly in the employ of the HBC, had in the course of organizing the entire region into an economy of extractive resources, set up permanent bases in western Washington. Thus Simpson had, for example, encouraged American missionaries to set up operations south and east of the Columbia; accepted settlement by American citizens in the Willamette Valley; and tried to extinguish fur supplies in the lands he expected the British would not retain.

He believed until the early s that the British would hold on to western Washington, which he regarded as integral to HBC operations on the west coast, and thus did not expect to have to modify activities there in response to an American takeover.

By that time, the balance of power between the British and Americans in regard to the boundary dispute was shifting. When the U. The great majority of its population resided far to the east of the Mississippi River. Its fur traders and trappers had not, until the s, penetrated the Rockies successfully or found ways through the mountains to the west coast.

Some Americans nurtured the idea of a Pacific-coast harbor, but most did not envision the United States expanding its holdings beyond the continental divide. Champoeg in , right looking south.

This situation began to change during the s and s. Mountain men and missionaries began to link the Pacific Northwest to the eastern states through their travels to, working in, and descriptions of the region. Moreover, a few parties of settlers began to make their way into the area. Then, during the s, the United States became keenly interested in westward expansion�so interested that national politicians took up the West as a key campaign issue and the U.

Simultaneously, thousands more Americans decided to migrate overland toward the coast, including especially the Willamette Valley. By contrast, British interest in the Northwest remained limited, largely because the HBC monopoly in the area had precluded much attention by others from Great Britain.

American citizens were taking a keen interest in the far corner of the continent, while British subjects most likely knew little about it, or else resented the fact that the HBC was a monopoly.

The arrival of American settlers cast into bold relief the different approaches adopted by the British and Americans for colonizing the region. The HBC generally discouraged settlement in the lands it expected to retain, and discouraged private ownership of lands; it aimed to minimize any disruption to the fur trade and any dislocation of its Indian trading partners.

It also worked to control non-native society in the area so that the company, and not individuals, dominated the local economy and governed the region. Americans, by contrast, expected to bring to the Northwest the more individualistic and democratic attitudes of their society.

They insisted upon acquiring privately owned parcels of land and having a voice in government. And they did not wish to be subordinate to such a powerful firm as the HBC. Map of International Rivalries. The arriving American settlers were aware of these differences. Although they did a good deal of business with the HBC, and actually benefited from HBC assistance and trade, they also resented the power of the Company.

One way to assert their own interests, and try to limit the influence of the company in the region, was for them to organize their own government�an action that reiterated their faith in American values of self-government and republicanism. Borrowing from the Iowa Territory code of laws, Oregon settlers formed the Provisional Government between and The first laws provided for the acquisition and secure ownership of land, the holding of elections, and the formation of a militia.

Later legislation provided for an executive and judicial branch of government and divided the territory into counties for local administration. Importantly, the Provisional Government outlawed the migration and residence of African Americans�both free and enslaved�to Oregon. In short order, between about and , the American presence had gone from being minimal to being substantial. This change was an important factor in strengthening the American claim to the territory.

At the national level, too, there existed a desire to stake a stronger claim to the Pacific Northwest. Britain and the U. Some Americans grew impatient with the dispute, so much so that James K. Polk, when running for president in , declared that he wanted the U. By , nonetheless, the two nations came to an agreement and signed the Oregon Treaty. The United States, patient since , finally secured the Pacific port they had coveted for so long, a port to which they surely had less claim than the British.

The British lost western Washington, but retained the interior coastline of the Strait of Georgia and Vancouver Island. The HBC retained the right of navigation on the Columbia and its substantial holdings in what was now American territory. Yet the transfer to U. Few Americans today pay much attention to the Oregon Treaty of The diplomatic negotiations that produced the treaty perhaps appear dull, as if the two sides finally just arrived at a fair compromise.

Maybe there is a sense, too, that the U. It would be best, however, to keep in mind that in Canada, across the border that the Oregon Treaty extended in , feelings are different. There, the Oregon Treaty is often remembered vividly as a loss, and one of many examples of American disrespect for Canadian borders and national integrity.

Thus James R. Canadians have valid reasons for regretting and even resenting the Oregon settlement, since the British claim to the territory north of the Columbia-Snake-Clearwater river system was at least as good as, if not better than, that of the United States on the grounds of discovery, exploration, and settlement, and since the future Canadian Dominion was deprived of any harbour on Puget Sound�.

They should also remember that whenever it is tritely declared that Canada and the United States share the longest undefended border in the world, it is so mainly because the stronger American republic won its northern boundary disputes at the expense of its weaker neighbour, just as it southern boundary was gained at the expense of a weaker Mexico.

Canadian views of this British participation hint at different kinds of weakness in the face of American strength. It was one thing to press territorial claims against a nation such as Mexico, and quite another to stand up to the most powerful nation in the world, as Britain was during the nineteenth century. Canadians and Americans tend to recall the Oregon Treaty in distinctly different ways. In this case and in virtually every other, how one interprets the past depends in large part upon where one is viewing it from.

In the early s a joke began making the rounds in the Pacific Northwest, and it went something like this. Three men were sitting around a campfire drinking. One was from Texas, one was from California, and one was from Oregon or, in some versions, Washington. One could no doubt argue that this joke is tasteless and that it trivializes violence.

It is mentioned not to endorse it but to provide evidence of what seem to me to be fairly widespread attitudes toward Californians on the part of people in the Pacific Northwest. I wish to note as well that these attitudes�and humorous expressions of them�have been of long standing.

Perhaps the first anti-California joke in the Pacific Northwest appeared in the s, and it went something like this: Migrants on the overland trail encountered a number of forks in Average Speed Of The Boat Sailor 5th the road. Ostensibly offered as criticisms of the Golden State, these jokes are really told to point out what we regard as our own virtues. They tell us about who we are or, more accurately, about who we think we are.

There is some truth to the idea conveyed in this humor that the Northwest and California have long been two different kinds of places and societies. At the same time, however, it seems to me that Northwesterners have tended to overemphasize these differences while underplaying the similarities and linkages between their region and California. Placer Miner , Helena, Montana. While this view shows a placer miner near Helena, it also illustrates the work of California gold-seakers.

Liberty, Missouri, Herald , Special Collections, University of Washington. Historians have written especially on settlers and societies in California and Oregon during the s and s , trying to detect differences during the critical early years of these two American states.

They have found ample grounds for confirming the founding of two distinct societies. At bottom, they agree, early American Oregon was shaped profoundly by the fact that immigrants were attracted primarily by the ample, fertile farmland in the Willamette Valley, while early American California was shaped profoundly by the fact that immigrants were attracted primarily by the presence of gold.

Prior to the discovery of gold in California in , Oregon was the favored destination of overland migrants to the West Coast. Once news of the gold strike reached across the continent, these percentages were reversed while the figures grew enormously. Figures from John D. The discovery of gold, then, dramatically rearranged the quantity of migrants heading west and the quantity of migrants going to specific places in the West.

It also introduced more qualitative differences into the stream of people moving overland. Those traveling overland to Oregon and California in the mids, their minds for the most part on starting farms in the Far West, included many more women and children.

In sum, then, families and farms tended to define society in Oregon, while males and miners tended to define society in California. Other differences accrued. Migrants to Oregon appeared to be more careful in how they got information about western destinations and how they moved across country.

That is, they relied more than Argonauts on information obtained first-hand from personal acquaintances, and their families traveled across the trail more commonly with others from their extended families, towns, churches, or other group of acquaintances. By contrast, migrants to California made the decision to move with less care and caution, coming much more frequently as individuals and depending more upon less reliable printed materials for their information about the coast.

Once they arrived at the end of the trail, moreover, California-bound emigrants proved much more mobile, moving around from place to place seeking opportunity, and also leaving the state more readily to return home or head for some other supposed strike. California seems to have been more restless, Oregon more steady.

Historians of early American Oregon and California have detected important differences in economic, political, and environmental attitudes that mirror these demographic differences. They participated in commerce, to be sure; indeed, their farms prospered in the late s and early s, in large part because they could sell so much produce to miners in more grasping California. The historian Robert Bunting explains:. Settlers approached markets cautiously, for although farmers wanted outlets for their surpluses, few were unlimited marketers merely awaiting the structures that would make profit maximization possible.

They accomplished their goal through raising a variety of crops and animals designed to meet household needs first and marketing only the surpluses�. Emigrants entering [Oregon] from the s to the s�were families in search of health and abundant land upon which they could establish permanent homes. Oregonians clearly recognized these goals as an important feature of their society and a significant element in framing a distinctive self-identity.

The farm of S. Timmons , Walla Walla County, n. Photo by F. Fortin, Walla Walla, UW negative Camp Ground, Aug. Raymond W. Settle, ed.

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